Even a superficial look at the people around us gives reason to talk about them incorrect. People vary By floor, age, temperament, growth, hair color, in terms of intelligence and many other features. Nature has endowed one musical abilities, the other - by force, the third - beauty, and someone voted the fate of the weak disabled. Differences between people due to their physiological and mental peculiarities are called natural. Natural differences are far from harmless, they can be the basis for the emergence of unequal relationships between individuals. Strong forcing the weak, cunning winning victory over spaces. Inequality arising from natural differences is the first form of inequality, in the form of the manifest and in some species of animals. However B. humansocietythe main thing is social inequality, Insoliscably linked with social differences, social differentiation.

Social called those differences which are generated by social factors:

Lifestyle (urban and rural population),

Division of labor (employees of mental and physical labor)

Social roles (father, doctor, politician), etc.

All this leads to differences in the degree of possession of the property, the income received, the authorities, the achievements of social status, prestige, education.

Various levels of social development are base for social inequality, the emergence of rich and poor, stratification of society, its stratification (stratum-layer, which includes people with the same income, power, education, prestige).

Income - The amount of monetary revenues received by the personality per unit of time. It may be labor, and maybe the ownership of property that "works".

Education - A complex of knowledge gained in educational institutions. Its level is measured by the number of years of study. Let's say an incomplete secondary school - 9 years. The professor has behind over 20 years of education.

Power- Perhaps to impose your will to other people regardless of their desire. It is measured by the number of people to which it spreads.

Prestige- This is an assessment of the position of the personality in society, which has developed in public opinion.

Causes of social inequality

Can there be a society without social inequality? Apparently, to answer the questioned question, it is necessary to deal with the reasons that generate the unequal position of people in society. In sociology there is no single universal explanation of the specified phenomenon. Various scientific and methodological schools and directions interpret it in different ways. We highlight the most interesting, which deserves the approaches.

Functionalism explains inequality based on the differentiation of social functionsperformed by various layers, classes, communities. Functioning, the development of society is possible only due to the division of labor, when each social group exercises the tasks of themselves vital for all integrity: some are engaged in the production of material benefits, others create spiritual values, the third is managed, etc. for normal life it is necessary for the optimal combination of all types of human activity.. Some of them are more important, others are less. So, based on the hierarchy of social functions, the corresponding hierarchy of classes, layers, perform them. Those who carry out general leadership and management of the country are invariably put on the top of the social staircase, for only they can support and ensure the unity of society, to create the necessary conditions for the successful performance of other functions.

An explanation of social inequality with the principle of functional utility is a serious danger of a subjectivist interpretation. Indeed, why this or that function is considered as more significant if society as a holistic organism cannot exist without a functional manifold. This approach does not allow to explain such realities as recognition for the individual of its belonging to the highest strategy in the absence of its direct participation in management. That is why T. Parsons, considering the social hierarchy as a necessary factor that ensures the viability of the social system, links its configuration with the system of dominant values \u200b\u200bin society. In his understanding, the location of the social layers on the hierarchical staircase is determined by the ideas of each of them formed in society.

Observations of actions, the behavior of specific individuals gave impetus to development status explanation of social inequality. Each person, occupying a certain place in society, acquires its status. Social inequality - This is the inequality of statusesarising from the ability of individuals to perform one or another social role (for example, be competent to manage, possess the appropriate knowledge and skills to be a doctor, a lawyer, etc.), and from the possibilities that make a person to achieve one or another Provisions in society (ownership of property, capital, origin, belonging to influential political forces).

Consider economic look On the problem. In accordance with this view, the root cause of social inequality is inevomy to property, the distribution of material goods. Most bright this approach manifested itself in marxism. According to his version, it is the appearance of private ownership led to the social stratification of society, education Antagonistic classes. The exaggeration of the role of private property in the social stratification of the Company led Marx and its followers to the conclusion about the possibility of liquidating social inequality by establishing public ownership of the means of production.

The absence of a single approach to the explanation of the sources of social inequality is due to the fact that it is always perceived at least two levels. First, as the property of society. Written story does not know societies without social inequality. The struggle of people, parties, groups, classes are the struggle for the possession of great social opportunities, advantages and privileges. If inequality is the inalienable property of society, therefore, it bears a positive functional load. The Company reproduces inequality, because it needs it as a source of life support, development.

Secondly, inequality always perceived as unequal relationships between people, groups. Therefore, the desire to find the origins of this unequal situation in the singularities of the position of a person in society are becoming natural: in possessing property, power, in the personal qualities of individuals. This approach has been widely widespread.

The inequality is multi-sided and manifests itself in various units of a single social organism: in the family, in the institution, in the enterprise, in small and large social groups. It is prerequisite organizations of social life. Parents, possessing the advantage in experience, skills, at their disposal of financial resources compared to their young children, have the opportunity to influence the latter, facilitating their socialization. The functioning of any enterprise is carried out on the basis of labor division on management and subordinate executive. The appearance in the leader's team helps its rallying, turning into a sustainable education, but simultaneously accompanied by the provision leader of special rights.

Any Social Institute, the Organization is striving for preservation of inequalityseeing in it ordering startwithout which it is impossible reproduction of social connections and the integration of the new one. This is a property inherent in society as a whole.

The problem of poverty and wealth.

Poverty - This is a condition in which the real needs of a person exceed its opportunities for their satisfaction. Poverty is a relative concept and depends on the overall standard of living standards in this society. Poverty is a consequence of a variety of and interrelated reasons that are combined into the following groups:

Economic (unemployment, low wages, low labor productivity, non-competitiveness of the industry),

Socio-medical (disability, old age, high incidence),

Demographic (incomplete families, a large number of dependents in the family),

Socio-economic (low social guarantee),

Educational and qualification (low level of education, insufficient training),

Political (military conflicts, forced migration),

Regional geographical (uneven development of regions).

If inequality characterizes society as a whole, then poverty concerns only part of the population. Depending on how high the level of economic development of the country, poverty Encompasses a significant or insignificant part of the population. Under absolute poverty It is understood as such a state in which the individual on his income is not able to satisfy even the basic food needs, housing, clothing, warmth, or can satisfy only minimal needs that provide biological survival. Scale of poverty Sociologists call the share of the country's population (usually expressed as a percentage) living in the official feature, or threshold of poverty. To denote the scale of poverty, the terms "poverty level", "poverty borders" and "poverty coefficient" are also used. Poverty threshold is the amount of money officially installed as a minimum income, thanks to which an individual or family is able to purchase food, clothing and housing. It is also called the "poverty level".

In Russia, he received an additional name - living wage. In sociology distinguished absoluteand relative poverty. Under relative poverty, it is impossible to maintain the level of resilient life, or some standard of life adopted in this society. As a rule, relative poverty is less than half of the average family income in the country. Relative poverty is a comparative characteristic in two meanings. First, it shows poverty as abundance or prosperity, which other members of society have not considered to be poor. The first meaning of relative poverty is to compare one strata with other strata (layers). Secondly, it shows poverty relative to some standard. The bottom limit is. Poverty is a subsistence minimum or threshold of poverty, and the upper time is the priority standard of living.

At the end of the XX century, Russian scientists began to distinguish between two types of poverty: 1) traditional poverty;

2) "new poor".

Examples of traditional poverty can be lonely mothers, large families, disabled and elderly. The group of new poor includes segments of the population, which in their education and qualifications, social status and demographic position have never been either before the lower layers. The majority of "new poor" are state employees - employees and workers engaged in the public sector (scientists, teachers of higher education, officers). The fall down is due to a small salary at state-owned enterprises, complete unemployment and partial employment.

Thus, if the traditional poor belongs to those who and in the Soviet society were considered poor, then to new poor - those who previously belonged to the prosperous middle layers, and in the post-Soviet society heleras. The difference between old and new poor in Russian society is fundamental. Old poor people do not have what is the social, cultural and economic foundation of new poor - intellectual capital, the basis of which is the highest and secondary special education. A good education in a civilized and stable society is a powerful social elevator that helps people climb on the social staircase and receive high and relatively high incomes. In transitional society, when a fundamental change of economy occurs. and social Structures, change of political regimes, education can not be paid high enough. Since the overwhelming part of the educated population is working in the public sector, and he is funded by the residual principle.

Another distinguishing feature of new poor is that the subculture of poverty, the norm of life at the "social day", the psychology of despair is not inherited. They do everything to give their children the best form to them affordable, they bring up their achievable motivation, transmit the traditions and values \u200b\u200bof the Russian intelligentsia. This is a characteristic feature of only Russian society. None in any country of the world is poor, firstly, not split on old and new, secondly, old new new, when changing the situation, make fast-upward mobility and time to take place on average. The boundaries of the concept of poverty vary this way that the definition of who is poor and who is not, a very difficult operation - both with theoretical and empirical point of view. In everyday reality, poverty means a lack of necessary resources, the state of extreme economic difficulties, the state in which the available resources are so small that they do not allow to satisfy the primary needs for survival, to participate in the daily life of society. Poverty is "much more than money."

People have always dreamed of justice. The indignation inequality was one of the most important driving forces in the history of the twentieth century, "neither Russian revolutions would not have happened without the decay of the colonial empires or the growth of the middle class in developed countries. But did the world become equitable for the past century? And can we avoid deepening inequality in the XXI century?

In a scientific environment, there is no single point of view on these issues, but a recent study of the World Bank unequivocally shows: inequality on the scale of the planet is reduced.

Rich, poor man ...

Supporters of the left (in the sense of socialist) ideas are usually confident that the gap between rich and poor deepens, acquiring just a catastrophic scale. "We live in a society where the inequality is striking, and in many cases it becomes more screaming," the famous Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg, who visited Moscow, convinced me.

There was nothing to cover - it is obvious that in Russia compared to the USSR, the property stratification has increased many times. It is enough to compare the carpet of Brezhnev with the Yacht Park Abramovich or the apartment of Soviet functionaries with the Palaces of the current officials and top managers. In 2012, the income of 10% of the richest and 10% of the poorest Russians differed 17 times, and in Soviet times - 4 times.

The post-Soviet Russia is a special case, but Western left speak about increasing inequality since the time of Charles Marx, which predicted that on one pole of society capital will accumulate, and on another poverty. The rich and his heirs are easy to become even richer: Capital brings much bigger profit than any work, and the poor family does not lend the initial capital - the work is too little. Therefore, the gap between the rich and the poor will only increase.

Anomalous twentieth century

All statistics of the year ago confirmed this logic. But the XX century it was spoiled: revolutions and world wars rearranged a tendency to increase inequalities. Giant states were lost, colonialism collapsed, trade union movement and redistribution of taxes in favor of the working class intensified in the West countries, and most importantly, the world joined the phase of rapid economic growth in the conditions of lack of working arms and technological roaring. As a result, in developed countries, the most low-income layers of the population came out of poverty.

1.1 billion inhabitants of the planet got out of extreme poverty since 1990. "Extreme poverty" is considered income less than $ 1.9 per day per person

But, according to one of the most famous modern followers of Marx, the economist of Tom Picketti, it was only a "temporary anomaly": since the 1970s, capitalism returned to his "normal" development, when the average state of the richest growing much faster than the world economy generally.

The strengthening of economic inequality in recent decades was not very noticeable, because they grow and the average standard of living. But statistics confirms many picketti conclusions. For example, the middle class in the USA is really blurred - a recent study of the Pew Research Center's sociological center recorded that for the first time in the post-war time in the United States, citizens with average incomes amounted to less than half of the population - 49.7%, although in 1971 there were 61% in 1971.

We are 99%!

Now 62 richer people of the planet have the same assets as the whole of the poorest half of the population. And if you take 1% of the richest people, their condition is approximately equal to the total wealth of the remaining 99%. "We are 99%!" - Remember the most popular slogan "occupy", the main western protest movement of recent years? He is about this, and the main cause of protest is indignation in inequality.

In his best-selling "Capital in the XXI century", Picketti claims that the Western world returns to "generic capitalism" - a society with a closed class structure, in which it is possible to get a lot of capital inheritance or successfully married. This is a oligarchic society in which several families control most of the wealth. Is it really our future?

As life has changed

Before you judge the future, let's see how the situation with inequality changed throughout the 20th century. Only watch will not be on the amount of money, but on what you can buy for this money, because equality is primarily equality of opportunities.

We became, for example, "equally" to eat? At the beginning of the last century, these the most 99% of the past meat could afford only on holidays, and often quickly hungry. Today we eat better than the kings of past epochs: we buy fruit from warm countries or seafood, located from us for thousands of kilometers. Rich prefer expensive farmers and "organic" food - the same by and large. Even in the Soviet society, the gap between the nomenclature and the people who dream of the sausage was much stronger.

767 million people are still in extreme poverty. More than half of them live in Africa south of the Sahara, another third in South Asia.

Whether inequality in access to education increased? At the beginning of the last century, higher education was a huge value that could afford the units. Now this is the norm, not to mention secondary education and universal literacy. Moreover, right now in this area there is a real revolution: online education allows billions of people to listen to lectures in the best universities of the world - there would be a desire.

And what about access to medicine? Here, the inequality clearly had to increase: modern medicine - the service is expensive. But no, statistics testifies to the opposite: the difference in child mortality or in total life expectancy all the time only decreases.

Maybe the inequality of people in front of the law increased? Nothing like this: women received voting rights, gays stopped planting, and racial and national segregation are successfully fighting, even the rights of children begin to defend.

Approximately the same happens in other areas. Picketti will proper "generic capitalism", and meanwhile it was never possible to get rich so easily, as now - simply organizing the start-up people needed, without any initial capital. There have never been such a reliable social elevators that allow a capable person of any origin to become a manager or an official. The ability to travel and choose the place of residence, too, was always the privilege of the elite, while two thirds of the inhabitants of today's Moscow were born not in it.

End of poverty

It turns out that according to statistics wealth concentrates in the hands of chosen and inequality is growing, but in fact, everything is different?

No, statistics will also change if not only Western countries take into account, and the whole world, most of which lives much more modestly with you, but much better than their parents. Recently, the World Bank has published a report on the results of the study of global property inequality. The conclusion is quite unequivocal: inequality is reduced for many decades.

80% extremely poor live in rural areas

Yes, the incomes of the rich grow faster than the economy as a whole. But the revenues of the poorest part of the population are growing even faster. The inequality decreases primarily due to the unheard of progress in the fight against poverty, from which over the last quarter a century has broken over a billion people.

For example, in India, only for 2009-2010 the number of poor people who survive less than $ 1.9 per day decreased by one and a half times. In China, yesterday's midbouring rural population massively goes into the category of secured citizens, middle class. And only in these two states people live more than in the entire Western world. However, according to the World Bank, inequality continues to decline in most developed countries.

What's next?

So, inequality is reduced. At a long time, it is easy to notice, and on a short one can trust the opposite trend - both in the USA and Russia.

The inequality, however, is not always evil, it is an important driving force of social development. The idea of \u200b\u200bequality is based on all social utopias, but when they were trying to embody them, whenever it turned out that the full equality is worse than any inequality. Pitirim Sorokin, the largest sociologist of Russian origin, argued that the level of economic inequality fluctuates around the optimal value, too strong deviation from which in any direction is fraught with disasters.

Apparently, the peak of inequality falls on the agricultural stage of the development of society, on one pole of which all the monarch and the brilliant aristocracy, and on the other, are powerless slaves and serfs.

Does the progress bearing a threat to equality? Perhaps. And it is connected, according to many experts, with a growing technological gap between countries. Some states create new technologies and rich. Others perform black work for them, the demand for which will fall as production automation. And the third and not can take advantage of the fruits of progress. A similar gap may occur within the country between the center and the periphery aside in the future, which lives in the cozy world of traditions.

And yet in the information society, judging by the current trends, the inequality will decrease. According to the famous economist Jeremy Rifkina and other ideologues of the sheering economy (from English Share - share), the development of the Internet and smart automated services will launch the transition from the economy based on the extraction of surplus value to the economy of cooperation and exchange of benefits.

This is based on a new sociality that comes to the change of atomization of society: people will take care of each other more and together to equip their community. And the economy based on social principles will focus not so much to increase profits, how much to improve the quality of our life.

The difference in income and the opportunities received for this have long been on the agenda in Russia, however, the crisis component of recent years has put it particularly acute. Statistics said that 10% of the most financially successful inhabitants of the country are 14.5 times more than 10% of the status distribution pyramid. In Europe, in general, this difference is 7 times, and even more socially fair Finland - 5.6 times.

According to the First Deputy Chairman of the State Duma Committee on Labor and Social Policy, Mikhail Tarasenko, the existing UN studies in this issue showed that when the difference in income reaches 8 times, the Company ceases to be stable, and after 10 it begins to ripen the revolutionary situation. He considers it categorically necessary to introduce a restriction that will result in the ratio of salaries to a more acceptable figure, at least in those organizations where the state has direct powers for this.

According to Tarasenko, our minimum level of remuneration puts the country to one of the last places in this indicator, and even developing states like Vietnam and Cambodia are higher than us. The level of minimum wage in the Russian Federation is now approximately 81.5 euros, while the same Germany offers its citizens to work no less than 1473 euros. Rosstat's recent data indicate the increase in the number of population, the incomes of which are not even reaching the humble level of the domestic subsistence minimum: in the 4th quarter of 2015 to the established plank at 9452 rubles "did not reach 19.2 million, which is 3.1 million. More than in 2014.

Analysts of the Financial Concern from Switzerland Credit Suisse confirm that Russia occupies a leading position in the world by income between the rich and poor. The information of Swiss says that 30-35% of the total national wealth of the country belongs only to 100 richest people, in addition to which there are even 97 thousand citizens with a state more than a million dollars. According to Credit Suisse, this number will only increase, reaching 203 thousand people in 2019.

Another Swiss source, the LE TEMPS newspaper, notes that in spite of everything, the growth of wealth of one part of society does not lead to a proportional worsening of the other life. Indeed, 13.4% of the country's inhabitants receive income below the subsistence minimum, however, if you return 12 years ago, this share was 29%. The author of the material Emmanuel Grispean believes that it is these figures that can be logically explained why, with such serious social inequality, Russian society still avoids critical consequences.

What is worse, official statistical data may not fully reflect the real state of affairs in society, because Rosstat's reports do not include information on marginal, sutured and other disadvantages, for example, not having housing or living in disturbing families. The richest citizens who are not coming from Forbes magazine pages are also excluded from the settlement of average living standards in Russia. How unofficially suggest some economists, if in statistical calculations to take into account the hidden profit, income from illegal business and corruption enrichment, real property differentiation may exceed 40-50 times.

Of course, such a problem exists not only in our fatherland. The Economic Forum in Davos among the 50 most serious global risks recognized it one of the most serious, if not the most important threat to business, since such inequality leads to internal public instability. The normal development of any state in the presence of such a serious break is impossible - it will not be possible to compose the domestic market, provide internal demand for innovation within the country. In order for the distance between the poor and rich to be reduced to acceptable values, the international association to combat Oxfam's poverty recommends a set of measures, including: harmonious division of the tax burden, reducing taxes on labor and consumption, serious investments in free medicine and education and the like. This should not do any individual personality, but the authorities at the state level.

A serious source of property perpetrators between poor and rich in Russia is the minimum wage (minimum wage), indexed extremely rarely and non-inflationary changes. But since he is officially recognized, it is his as a guideline takes a solid reservoir of employers when establishing a tariff net for personnel. Thanks to this, 20% of agricultural and education workers, as well as approximately the same number of employees of the communal services market and medical staff, receive payment less than the subsistence minimum.

The director of the Institute of Strategic Analysis FBK Igor Nikolayev indicates a serious share of responsibility in what is happening, lying on the shoulders of the state authorities. In his opinion, the period of extremely high prices for hydrocarbons favorable for the country, they should have changed the distribution of the total supplies in such a way that it would be much higher to change the part or another by the poor part of the population. However, this was not done. The crisis situation worsens a catastrophically low level of corporate management efficiency. Until now, many high pay guidelines do not perceive themselves otherwise, as temporarily occupy a favorable position, and their destination on it see how the ability to steal as much as possible without worrying about the consequences. A flat income tax scale completes the list of reasons, ultimately leading to such a gigantic discontinuity in income between the poor and rich parts of the population.

In the traditional report of the Oxfam organization dedicated to the start of the International Economic Forum in Swiss Davos, it is indicated that the state of the richest people of the Planet over the year has grown, and now only 1% of the world's population owns more than half of all wealth. The state of 3.7 billion inhabitants of the planet - the poor half of the world's population - while remained unchanged.

Over the last affordable year (mid 2017 by mid 2016), the total global wealth has increased by $ 9.3 trillion, and 82% of this increase ($ 7.6 trillion) got the richest of 1% of the world population, follows from the calculations of Oxfam based on data Annual Report Credit Suisse - Global Wealth Databook. As a result, the proportion of global wealth, which falls on the richest 1%, increased to 50.1% (from 49% a year earlier). In 2000, their share was 45%.

While the richest 1% of the population owns 50% of world wealth, poor half of the earth's population is satisfied with less than 1% of world wealth, or even 0.5%, if you deduct their net debts.

Billionaires are becoming richer

Oxfam separately analyzed the dynamics of the wealth of world billionaires from the Forbes list. Last year, the number of billionaires increased by 233 (record increase), up to 2043 people. Almost 90% - men, notes Oxfam.

The status of billionaires, which appeared in the Forbes ranking from March 2017, and in the ranking of March 2016, increased by $ 762.5 billion (in dollars 2017), and it would be enough to liquidate poverty on the planet in 2017 in the seven-time year (846 million people living beyond poverty around the world required $ 107 billion to tighten their revenues before the delimitation line).

Oxfam indicates that the total wealth of billionaires since 2010 increased at a rate of 13% per year - six times faster than income of ordinary workers and employees throughout the planet.

The authors of the report explain that the most prosperous inhabitants of the planet treasures including due to deterioration of working conditions for workers and employees. Simultaneously with the cutting of the rights of workers, the influence of large business on the adoption of state decisions is growing, and payments to the main shareholders are increasing.

"The increase in the number of billionaires means not an increase in the economy, but on the contrary, failure of the system. Those who sew clothes collects phones, grows food, are operated for the sake of creating a continuous flow of cheap products and increasing profits of large corporations, "said Oxfam Winnie Executive Director.

Video: RBC

At the same time, Bianan said that the operation is exposed to both residents of developing countries and workers in the United States. For example, in Vietnam, women working in sewing factories do not see their children, and women who work on the United States poultry enterprises are forced to come to work in diapers, because during the shift they are forbidden to go to the toilet.

In mid-January 2017, Oxfam, from which it follows that the capital of eight richest inhabitants of the planet and 50% of humanity were equal. Now the organization revised this calculation: in 2016, 61 billionaire owned as the same wealth as it was near the poor half of humanity, in 2017 this figure decreased to 42 billionaires.

Oxfam was created in 1942 and acts in defense of people who were beyond the poverty line and became victims of gender inequality. Every year she publishes reports with suggestions to improve people's lives throughout the planet.

According to statistics of the All-Russian Center for Lifestyle (VTSU)The level of consumption of the entire Russian population can be divided into four groups:

1) the most numerous - poor. The level of their money incomes is lower than the subsistence minimum, and poverty is absolute. This means that there is not enough money even to the necessary food. By 2001, the overwhelming majority of the country's citizens amounted to the "poor" population.

2) low-income. Their income is approaching the magnitude of the minimum consumer budget, which allows "bare ends with the ends" and acquire the necessary set of goods and services.

3) securedwhose income exceeds the minimum consumer budget, but not "grown" to the budget of people of high intact.

4) rich and wealthy.

As a result of the financial crisis of 1998 in Russia, the poor has become much larger. If in the summer of 1998 they had an income below the subsistence minimum of 47% of the country's population, then a year later, they were 56% mainly due to the low-income "and" medium "layers. Even in Moscow the number" poor "after August 1998 G. grew from 16 to 25%. The number of "wealthy" and "rich" practically remained at the same level, and in a number of regions even increased.

Thus, not only social, but also economic stratification of the population arose, that is, its bundle in income.

At 5% of the most secured residents of Russia accounts for about 70% of all savings placed on its territory. On medium - and highly protected segments of the population account for about 26% of savings; Poor and low-income groups, numbering 50% of the population, have only 1.2-1.4% of the total savings.

As a result of the stratification, new social sectors of society. There was a new social class - the class of owners who can be called a modern Russian bourgeoisie. Among them are large and medium-sized entrepreneurs - owners of enterprises and firms, as a rule, professionally engaged in business. A significant part and the former Soviet-party nomenclature took place (party, Komsomol workers, responsible employees of the Soviet authorities, etc.).

The difference in the ratio of income 10% of the richest people and 10% of the most poor before the start of reforms (in 1990) accounted for 4.4 times. But already in 1994 - 15.1 times. In 2000, this difference reached 32 times (according to the official data of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation). According to the results of sociological research, the difference is even more. A similar gap between wealth and poverty in the world is difficult to find. For these numbers - a visual illustration of social polarization, focusing the population on poles of poverty and wealth.

Another feature of the modern social structure of the Russian society is the emergence of a numerous social group of unemployed.

At the end of February 1999, the number of unemployed reached an absolute maximum For the entire period of reforms in the 90s: 10.4 million people. By 2001, the unemployment rate in Russia in a percentage of the economically active population was 11.5% (in 1999 - 12.9%), despite the fact that officially registered unemployed numbered 1.5%. The peculiarity of the Russian unemployment is her female face. The share of women among the unemployed was 68.2% in 2000, and in a number of northern regions - 70-80%.

Relevant remains the problem of youth unemployment. All these factors in their aggregate made the social consequences of unemployment in Russia significantly largely more difficult than in Western countries.

In the country formed and expands lumine layer (Declassified elements - tramp, beggars, etc.). These are people without a certain kind of classes, without property, permanent residence and income level, lost professional status and alienated from labor activity, in most cases finally lost labor orientations.

Along with the lumenization increases and marginalization Russian society. The phenomenon of marginalness occurs during migrations. Refugees, migrants, emigrants, immigrants - typical representatives of the marginal layer. Marginals are also people who have joined inter-ethnic and interracial marriages.

Thus, it can be seen that the financial crisis of August 1998 was very significantly and negatively affected the standard of living and the social status of the young "middle class" of Russia. The exceptions are, according to sociologists, only about 4% of the representatives of the "middle class", whose "income in foreign currency, according to their own estimates, helped them not feel any negative consequences of the crisis."

In general, as the social practice showed, the "middle class" of Russia by the end of 1999 adapted to a certain extent adapted to new crisis conditions and to a certain extent - reanimated. Perhaps, with a more thoughtful state and weighted economic policy, the "middle class" arose and will be able to provide a positive impact on the social stabilization of society as a whole. But for this you will need years.

Workshops:

Analysis of the legislative acts of the Russian Federation in the field of social policy. (1991-1999) and drawing up the thesis plan - abstract.

Tasks for self-execution -not provided.

Verification plan-abstract.

Oral survey.

1. Citizens received by citizens in the early 1990s. Vouchers are:

a) state loan bonds

b) stock owners

c) privatization checks

d) credit cards

2. Privatization of property is:

a) transferring it to the state

b) transfer it to private hands

c) transfer to foreign investors

d) sale at European auctions

3. To politics, E. Gaidar applies:

a) price liberalization

b) deleting

c) creating a stabilization fund

d) preservation of state monopoly on foreign trade

4. After the resignation of E. Gaidar, the government headed:

a) E.M. Primakov

b) V.V. Putin

c) S.V. Kiriyenko

d) V. S. Chernomyrdin

5. The concepts of "price liberalization", "shock therapy" are associated with the period:

a) the cult of the personality of Stalin

b) Perestroika

c) "thaw"

d) early 1990s.

6. One of the reasons for the resignation of the government E. Gaidar in 1992:

a) dissatisfaction with Gaidar's policies from foreign partners

b) SPECIAL OF GKCHP

c) government conflict and president in power struggle

d) dissatisfaction with the consequences of "shock therapy"

7. By the early 2000s. The most numerous population group in Russia:

a) low-income

b) Poor

c) wealthy

d) secured

8. People without a certain kind of occupation, without property, permanent residence and income level - this is:

a) Marginala

d) Lumpen

9. The privatization of part of state ownership began in Russia in 1992 was carried out in the form:

a) distribution of the cash value of property between citizens

b) the organization of auction sales of shares

c) distribution among the population of enterprises

d) issuance of privatization checks by citizens of Russia

10. At the end of the 1990 x -2000-gg. In Russia, classes were formed:

a) owners and middle class

b) oligarchs and hired workers

c) bourgeoisie and peasantry

d) rich and poor

Topic 1.2. Political development of modern Russia

: Constitution, Federal Assembly, Federation Council, Majoritarian System, Separatism, National Projects.

Topics Study Plan

1. Public - political development of Russia (1990 - e.). Constitution of the Russian Federation 1993 ..

2. Political development of modern Russia (1996 - 2000 - e). Activity B.N. Yeltsin, V.V. Putin, D.A. Medvedev.

1 . The difficulties and costs of economic reforms of the initial stage of the sovereign development of Russia have sharply strengthened the political struggle in the country in the relationship between the executive (government) and legislative (People's deputies of the RSFSR) of the branches of power. The center of the opposition to the government was the Supreme Council of the RSFSR headed by R.I. Hasbulatov. At the VII Congress of People's Deputies In December 1992, President B. N. Yeltsin was forced under the influence of a powerful wave of criticism to resign E. Gaidar and appoint instead by V.S. Chernomyrdin.

But the confrontation continued. The main object of criticism is President B. Yeltsin. "Cold War" began between the President of Russia and the Supreme Council, during which Vice-President A.V. went over to the direction of the latter Rumbian. In fact, this meant drooplow. The struggle around the foundations of the constitutional system was with varying success until spring 1993. On April 25, at the insistence of Yeltsin was held referendumon confidence in the president. For confidence, the president spoke 58% of the voting. Nevertheless, the struggle for the removal of Yeltsin from power continued after the referendum. The constitutional crisis was not overcome.

Long confrontation of the legislative and executive authorities resulted in armed conflict. Yeltsin to stop the prolonged political duals, on September 21, 1993 issued Decree No. 1400 "On the Phased Constitutional Reform", which announced the dissolution of the congress and the Supreme Council and holding a referendum on the new Constitution and elections on December 12 (State Duma and the Federation Council). Yeltsin stated that the only way to overcoming paralysis of state power is its fundamental update based on the principles of democracy and constitutionality. Supreme Council (Sun) of the RSFSR and Vice President A.V. Rumba qualified the actions of Yeltsin as a coup. Public appeals to peaceful resolution of the conflict by simultaneous elections of parliament and the president of the country's authorities did not hear. The leaders of the "irreconcilable opposition" brought their supporters to the barricades. On the night of September 23, 1993, the Extraordinary X Congress of People's Deputies adopted a resolution in which he removed Yeltsin from power and qualified his actions as a coup. The executing president was elected A. Rutsk. After that, the confrontation passed into the power plane. Having received the authority, Rumba created armed formations, the weapons and ammunition were brought to the White House.

The opposition organized on October 3, 1993 in the center of Moscow at Smolensk Square, mass riots. By 10 o'clock in the evening, armed militants attempted his assault. In this situation, Yeltsin gave an order about entering Moscow Tank Division and the White House blocade. As a result, on both sides, the victims were, including neither deputies, no rebellion leaders. The rebels were arrested. "Black October" destroyed the system of councils and Soviet power.

The victory of the presidential country gave the opportunity to carry out the reform of the political system and take a new Constitution country. December 12, 1993. There was a nationwide vote on the adoption of a new constitution. As a result, it was approved by a majority of votes and entered into force. This constitution failed under the Soviet period of history. She introduced in Russia presidential Republic, endowed the president with broad authorities with the right to appoint the head of government and the dissolution of the State Duma. She fastened the federal form of state, the separation of authorities to the legislative, executive and judicial, diversity of property types, the broad rights and freedoms of citizens.

The highest legislative authority became Federal Assembly consisting of two chambers: Federation Council and State Duma. The Federation Council includes two representatives from the executive and representative branches of the power of each of the subjects of Russia. The State Duma is elected on the basis of majoritarian system (single-member constituency) and representation of political parties, movements and organizations overcoming 5% barrier votes.

At the same time, December 12, 1993 took place elections in state-owned and the Federation Council. They took part 13 political parties, movements. Following the election, 450 deputies were elected. In contrast to the former Supreme Council, the State Duma was originally created as an exclusively professional parliament. All selected deputies were to work on an ongoing basis. The underlying of the Lower Chamber according to the Constitution includes the adoption of legislation, the approval of the state budget and control over its execution, monitoring the observance of human rights, participation in the formation of the government.

Council of the Federation - The Upper Chamber of Parliament represents and protects the interests of all subjects of the Federation. Its main function is the consideration of the federal laws taken by the Lower Chamber. The composition of the State Duma deputies of the first convocation reflected the real relationship of forces and sentiment in Russian society. The Russian parliament of the first convocation performed its main function: legalized a new political and state system.

2. December 17, 1995. Take off new elections to the State Duma. Elections showed an increasing role in the political life of the opposition. For seats, 43 political parties and associations fought. The elections brought a new alignment of forces: according to the results of the voting, the Communist Party of the Communist Party was first published, on the 2nd place - the LDPR, in the 3rd place - the block "Our House - Russia" (at the chapter - V.S. Chernomyrdin). Elections showed discontent with government policies.

Key factor in the political and economic development of Russia in 1996 presidential elections. The election race was quite tense. Ultimately, B.N. won Yeltsin. But after re-election, Yeltsin could not speed up market reforms. All major power in the country began to acquire oligarchs. Still political relations in the Russian Federation remained very sharp. The political struggle between different political forces continued. For the period 1995 - 1999. It was characteristic frequent change of governmentswho had to solve complex economic and social problems. In 1997 - 1998 Big scope has reached a strike movement.

Increased the threat of decay of the Russian Federation. This was the growth of separatism among the leaders of the National Republics. In many republics gain separatism accompanied by the increase in the oppression of Russians. A particularly dangerous position was based on the North Caucasus. The Chechen Republic has become a source of crime in all Russia. Attempting to restore the constitutional legality and law enforcement led to war in Chechnya in 1995-1996. Between the President Yeltsin and the State Duma convocation of 1995-1999. The confrontation appeared again. In May 1999, the Communists tried to remove Yeltsin from power, but did not gain the desired number of votes. The president himself conducted a number of resignations and appointments. On August 9, 1999, the Prime Minister was appointed V.V. Putin. He took responsibility for the second Chechen campaign. The success and determination of hostilities led to an increase in its popularity. On December 31, 1999, Yeltsin voluntarily resigned, having transferred his authority to Putin's government. "Epoch Yeltsin" ended.

On March 26, 2000, Putin's presidential election won the first round, receiving 52.94% of the vote. The results of the elections 1999 - 2000. Largely changed the situation in Russia. In the Duma there was a proper presidential majority. The government continued to conduct reforms. It was recognized that their success is the presence of strong state power. 7 federal districts were created, which were appointed by the presidential representatives. V.V. Putin follows the line of strengthening the "vertical of power". The legislation of the republics, edges, regions are due to federal laws. A new procedure has been established for the formation of the Federation Council: it now consists not from chapters, but from representatives of the regions. Adopted law on parties. Approval of the Duma in December 2000, the coat of arms, the hymn, the flag of Russia was intended to consolidate society. The population supported Putin's policies. In the parliamentary election of 2003, the Proprepsive Party "United Russia" won the victory. AT march 2004. Putin second time He was elected president of the Russian Federation. 71.31% of voters voted for him.

Tax, judicial, retirement, military reforms were carried out. Since 2004, administrative reform began, the political reform continued. At the proposal of Putin, direct elections of the governors of the population were canceled. Their candidates were made by the president and approved by the Legislative Assembly of the Regions. To ensure the interaction of citizens with the authorities, the protection of rights and freedoms, in order to control the activities of the authorities, was formed Public Chamber.

At the beginning of the XXI century. The growth of the Russian economy continued. Successes in the economy made possible adoption in 2005-2006. At the initiative of the president national projects ("Education", "Health", etc.). Putin's second presidential term (2004-2008) was characterized by a continuation of economic growth, strengthening stability in society, increase authority Russia in the international arena. In the next message to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation in April 2005, Putin defined it as the main political and ideological task of Russia as a free democratic state. To achieve it, the President proposed a number of measures to develop the state, strengthening the rule of law and improving the effectiveness of justice.

2nd of March 2008 G.. At the next presidential election won YES. Medvedev (70.28% of votes), supported by V.V. Putin and the parties of the majority "United Russia". Putin consent to the President of the Russian Federation to work as head of government (from May 8, 2008). This indicates the continuity of the political course, which is important in the conditions of the economic crisis, which affected Russia and the world community.

Workshops:

Working with textual, legislative, video material revealing national policies and interethnic relations in modern Russia, and the design of the thesis abstract.

Selection of material for dispute, preparation of the report "Modern problems of interethnic relations in the world."

Form of control of independent work:

Oral survey .

Checking the thesis abstract .

Protection of the report.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. The current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in:

2. The modern constitution was adopted on:

a) referendum

b) closed meeting of the Central Committee of the Party

c) xxviii CPSU Congress

d) X Congress of People's Deputies

3. The emergence of this state body is associated with the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:

a) Congress of People's Deputies

b) All-Russian Central Executive Committee

c) of the Supreme Council

d) Federation of Federation

4. Post Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation in the 1990s. occupied:

a) N.I. Ryzhkov

b) A.N. Kosygin

c) G.A. Yavlinsky

d) V.S. Chernomyrdin

5. The State Duma in 1993 is elected on the basis of:

a) mixed system

b) proportional system

c) majoritarian system

d) presidential president of the Russian Federation

a) State Duma

b) Federation of Federation

c) of the State Council

d) of the Supreme Council

7. V.V. Putin first took the presidency of the Russian Federation in:

8. To Putin's political line, proclaimed at the beginning of his presidency, belongs:

a) course for acceleration

b) expansion of powers of local legislative bodies

c) strengthening the "vertical of power"

d) the development of multiparty in the Russian Federation

9. The second presidential term of Putin emerged for the period:

a) 2000 - 2004

b) 2008 - 2012.

c) 2006 - 2010

d) 2004 - 2008.

10. The state symbols of Russia were approved by the State Duma in:

Topic 1.3. Cultural development of modern Russia

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: Culture, Westernization of Culture, Modernization of the education system, EGE.

Topics Study Plan (List of questions mandatory for study):

1. Cultural development of modern Russia. General characteristics and development trends.

2. Modern education system in Russia and its prospects. Achievements of modern Russian science and HTR.

Summary of theoretical issues:

1 . Cultural processes do not disappear with the collapse of states and political regimes. The collapse of the USSR has activated the processes that occurred in the culture and spiritual life of the existence of the Soviet state. Start 1990 - X. It took place under the sign of the accelerated decay of the Unified Culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values \u200b\u200bof the total culture of the USSR, but also the cultural traditions of each other. Such a sharp opposition of various national cultures led to the growing social and cultural tension, to the emergence of conflicts and caused the disintegration of a single sociocultural space.

The relationship between power and culture has changed. There was no party-state dictate, a unified culture management system disappeared, and many processes are developing now autonomously. At the same time, the state in the post-Soviet Russia retained the function of the "regulator" of cultural processes, supporting the education system and science, as well as to ensure the availability of educational and cultural institutions. But it was not enough funds to be disastrously, which leads to commercialization and westernizationcultures - penetration of alien components of mass western culture.

Social decay and moral degradation directly influenced the state of spiritual life. During the contradictory modernization, the Company changes so quickly that culture does not have time for these changes. More than 80% of the population lives in cities, but often this is the first-generation citizens. Strengthening the marginalization of the population led to the fact that the marginal system of values \u200b\u200bextended to wide circles.

Making a bet in managing society to material instruments, the state made a mistake. Moral norms and moral values \u200b\u200bbegan to determine personal, business, political relations in society. Unlimited rights to power received money and power, regardless of their origin. But neither money nor the power is ineffective in managing society.

Modern culture of society is a culture of a half-year, semi-suite. The main problem, which exciting Russians is a change in the nature of the relationship between people. Immorality is found in obscene vocabulary. He received, unfortunately, the widest distribution among the vast masses of the population and gave rise to a corresponding look at life. In modern Russia, the foul language turned into a real misfortune. Many cause a sharp rejection to the use of abnormative vocabulary in the literature, on television, in the stage, etc.

In artistic culture, a uniform principle of socialist realism came the style and genre variety, where no style is dominant. The artist reserves the right to choose. An important success criterion is a recognition of a wide audience, the ability to attract her attention and deserve approval. Financial success is identified with cultural, and this leads to pragmatism and utilitarianism. Cultural is declared what is economically beneficial. There is a dehumanization of culture, culture loses the right to approve the intrinsicness of man, personality, life. A simplified, primitive cultural ideal is created.

2. In 1992, the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" was adopted, which secured his humanistic principles. The network of educational institutions has become diverse, gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, private schools are functioning. But due to the lack of financing, many schools vocine a pitiful existence. After the collapse of the USSR, children's homelessness increased dramatically.

Since 2000, a new educational reformCommitted "Modernization of the education system." It provides for the transition to 12-year high school training, the introduction of the EGE for graduates, based on the results of which is enrolled in universities.

The higher education system in the country is developing, especially its paid forms. There are non-state universities on a commercial basis in the country. One of the main problems is now the quality of educational services.

In a difficult situation, Russian science remains, because State financing declined sharply, the salary of specialists is quite low. Many talented scientists are not in demand in their homeland. Little support science grants. From outstanding events, it is necessary to note the award of the Nobel Prize in the field of physics by Russian scientists J.I. Alpherov (2000), A.A. Abrikosov and V.L. Ginzburg (2003).

Of all the spheres of culture successfully fit into the market print and book.

Paper deficit was eliminated, it made it possible to fill the counter of the most diverse book products. The development of the media contributes to the lack of censorship. It is impossible to say that it always affects positively. The media use advertising space for their activities. In 1994, the first non-governmental NTV channel began to work.

For literature, the presence of a variety of genres. But prevailed mainly postmodernism. Until the 1990s. "Moscow - Petushki" V. Yerofeyev, "School of Fools" S. Sokolova were written. From modern Russian writers, V. Pelevin, Yu. Buthida, V. Piezuha and others can be called. Successfully worked, realistical writers V. Astafyev "Cursed and killed", B. Vasilyev "Ceremak", Baklanov "His man". Large historical and documentary studies were the "Red Sun", "two hundred years together" A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

Heavy times experienced domestic cinema. Reducing state support, underfunding almost destroyed Russian cinema. Western (mainly US) low-line film production knocked on domestic film market. From the second half of the 1990s. The position has become a little change. The production of domestic artistic films is being established, various festivals are held, Moscow International Film Festival became annual. Noticeable film festivals are held in Sochi and Vyborg. The spectators showed the greatest interest to the films of N. Mikhalkov "Siberian Barber" (1999), S. Druzhinina "Secrets of Palace Dobor" (2000-2003), A. Kotta "Brest Fortress" (2010).

The development of cultural processes in modern Russia is controversial: on the one hand, this is the availability of complete freedom of self-expression in the creative intelligentsia, on the other hand, the difficult conditions of existence in market conditions in case of insufficient financial assistance of the state.

The scope of education and science continues to be predominantly depressed. School teachers, teachers of strokes, universities from the respected population group, which they were in Soviet times, are moving into the discharges of state employees. This is an extremely dangerous trend, because It is these people that grow intellectual potential of our state. The process of "brain leakage", which actively beginning to the Gorbachev restructuring, acquires a catastrophic scale. Many teachers who are at the actual age leave work in the educational sphere, and are forced to look for earnings on the side. Such a situation should be the focus of attention of the state, because Requires urgent permission.

Workshops:

Working with text material, Internet resources revealing the content of the media and their impact on the cultural development of modern youth, its problems, the design of the reference abstract

Tasks for self-execution:

Drawing up an expanded plan on the topic "Media and culture of youth"

Form of control of independent work:

Oral survey.

Checking the reference abstract, plan.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. Culture is:

a) exclusively the level of technical development of society

b) the totality of all achievements of humanity

c) the level of education of individual layers of the population

d) level of literacy of the population

2. In the late 1990s - early 2000s. In the market successfully fit:

a) cinema and theater

b) printing and books

c) circus and pop

d) ballet and opera

3. In the literature of the 1990s. prevailed:

a) realism

b) Sentimentalism

c) postmodernism

d) modernism

4. Penetration of alien components of mass western culture in the domestic called:

a) internationalization

b) globalization

c) Westernization

d) integration

5. Modernization of the education system provides:

a) Returns to 10 years of education and cancellation of oral exams

b) transition to 11-year education, cancellation of the exam

c) transition to a raid education at school

d) transition to 12 years of education in high school, the introduction of the exam

6. On the state of spiritual life in the 1990s. In Russia influenced:

a) economic rise country

b) big financial care of the West

c) new state ideology

d) social decay and moral degradation

7. To the peculiarities of the development of science at the turn of the XX - XXI centuries. You can attribute:

a) the desire for more discoveries

b) the use of microprocessor technologies in research

c) conducting virtual scientific experiences

d) expansion of knowledge about the world around

8. The first non-state channel began to work in the Russian Federation in:

9. Nobel Prize winners in the field of physics in 2000 - X. become:

a) M. Keldysh, L. Kantorovich

b) P. Kapitsa, S. Korolev

c) I. Bunin, I. Brodsky

d) J. Alfere, A. Abrikosov, V. Ginzburg

10. In modern Russia, the process is observed:

a) the influx of foreign specialists

b) science dehumanization

c) "brain leaks"

d) computerization culture

Topic 1.4. Foreign policy development of modern Russia

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: Geopolitics, Bipolar Foreign Policy, Multipolar Foreign Policy, Global Problems.

Topics Study Plan (List of questions mandatory for study):

1. Foreign policy development of modern Russia. Expanding relationships with key regions of the world.

2. Russia and global problems of modernity.

Summary of theoretical issues:

1 . The role and place of Russia in the modern world is largely determined by its geopolitical position. placement, power and ratio of forces in the world system of states. One of the most important components of the geopolitical position is the ability to control key spaces and geographic points throughout the world. After the collapse of the USSR and the CIS creation developed fundamentally new foreign policy situation. The Russian Federation received international recognition as the succession of the USSR in foreign policy. The country has confirmed continuity against arms control agreements, solving global problems. But the state faced serious geopolitical shifts, temporary disorganization in determining the main enemy in the international arena, the rearrangement of forces, the change of political regimes, the emergence of new states.

The main task of Russia's foreign policy - Revival and strengthening its international positions. "Basic provisions of the Concept of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation" were developed. The priority directions of foreign policy were:

§ Creation of a new relationship system with former socialist countries;

§ Entrance to the European and world community;

§ Development of new principles of interstate relations with the former republics of the USSR;

§ Activation of relations with China;

§ countries of Southeast Asia;

§ Equal development of relations with the United States;

§ Participation in peacekeeping promotions to prevent armed conflict.

The Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation in the post-Soviet period is characterized by the following features:

1. Change paradigms in world politics in connection with the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the USSR and the Socialist System;

2. Transition from a bipolar system of international relations to multipolar and multi-vector foreign policy;

3. The emergence of a new direction in foreign policy activities - relations with the CIS countries.

The main directions of the country's foreign policy are:

1. Problems of European Security (Russia and NATO);

2. Russian - American relations;

3. Russia and the CIS countries;

4. Relationship with states of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Safety on the European continent, the NATO approach to Russian states has become a priority direction in Russia's foreign policy. AT 1996. Russia joined B. Council of Europe. NATO relations were normalized. In 2002, the Declaration of "Rosy Russia - NATO: New Quality" was signed.

In 1997, Russia's accession to the Paris and London Clubs of creditors was approved at the meeting in Denver (USA). Finally, Russia entered the "eight" in 1998

An important place was served by Russian-American relations. In 1993, an agreement was concluded on reducing strategic offensive arms (OSNV-2). Relations with the United States continue to develop dynamically. President Putin One of the first expressed US support in the fight against international terrorism after an attack on American cities in September 2001

In 2000, in Moscow, President V. Putin was approved new Russian Foreign Policy Conceptwhich proceeded from a multipolar system of international relations, actually reflecting the multipleness of the modern world with the diversity of his interests. The place of Russia was determined as great Eurasian Powercarrying responsibility for maintaining security in the world, both global and regional levels.

In September 2003, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan signed a framework agreement on the establishment of a unified economic space zone. Russia continues to play a leading role in the post-Soviet space. Relations with Asian, African, Latin American states are mutually benefit.

Speaking with the Epistle of the Federal Assembly on April 26, 2007. The President of the Russian Federation V. Putin noted that "our foreign policy is aimed at joint, pragmatic and not ideological work on solving problems urgent for us."

More and more states transfer accents of cooperation from the military sphere in the financial and economic fields. Russia is firmly inscribed in the modern global world. Russia is committed to solid peace, the establishment of partnerships with all countries, the inclusion in the orbit of global economic ties on an equal basis.

2 . Russia is firmly inscribed in the modern global world. End XX - early XXI centuries. Brought new challenges and threats to the country's security. With the end of the "Cold War", the problems of nuclear weapons and international terrorism began to go to the fore. In the conditions of deep exacerbation of the international situation, Russia actively participated in the development of a new agreement system, in creating a new balance of power, so that the exacerbation of the international situation does not lead to chaos or war against all or the hegemony of one power. Goals of Russia in the international arena Extremely simple: border safety and the creation of external favorable conditions for solving domestic Russian problems.

International terrorism, who declared his seizure of September 1, 2004 in Beslan, as a result of which, according to official data, 330 people died. And more than 1,300 suffered, forced world powers to reject the idea of \u200b\u200bnuclear disarmament as "romanticism" of the Cold War.

After September 11, 2001, the United States stepped up its policies in the post-Soviet space. The main goal of the United States proclaimed the fight against terrorism. American troops and databases appeared in Central Asia. Responding to new circumstances, Russia tried to build in 2003-2004. With its neighbors on the CIS, a new relationship model, incl. And in conflict zones of the South - Central Asia and the Transcaucasus. Russia makes great efforts to reduce the level of international tension, help repay the foci of tension in the Caucasus. Our country strives to play an active role in the fight against international terrorism, in solving the problems facing the world community. In February 2007, the international conference on security issues, the President of the Russian Federation made focus on the responsibility of Russia together with other countries for the construction of a new world world order on the basis of justice and comply with the right as generally accepted democratic standards of the world order. Russia takes part in peacekeeping shares to solve global problems, incl. environmental, demographic, educational, etc.

In its international policy, Russia is committed to a solid world, establishing partnerships with all countries, the inclusion in the orbit of global economic ties on an equal and non-discriminatory basis.

Workshops:

Consideration of documents, doctrines revealing the interaction of Russia with the international community in solving global problems of modernity and the design of the comparatively generalizing table "International Organizations and Global Problems".

Tasks for self-execution:

Drawing up a table "Foreign policy of Russia 1990 - 2000 - E GG.".

Form of control of independent work:

Oral survey.

Check tables.

Questions for self-control on the topic:

1. The heading task of Russia's foreign policy after the collapse of the USSR:

a) build up military potential

b) full disarmament

c) an increase in the financing of the army

d) revival and strengthening international position of the Russian Federation

2. Russia joined the Council of Europe to:

3. The new concept of Russia's foreign policy comes from:

a) bipolarity of the world

b) peace multipolarity

c) monopolarity in the world

d) exceptional role us

4. First place in foreign policy goes out for Russia:

a) European security problems

b) Relationship with Africa

c) relationship with Latin America

d) relationship with China

5. The concept of foreign policy of 2000 defined Russia as:

a) the largest European power

b) the great European power

c) Great Military Power

d) the largest information power

6. Russia entered the "eight" of the largest powers in:

7. Monopolar world in the 1990s. Prevented domination:

a) Russia

8. On the suspension of the process of disarmament of the United States and Russia influenced:

a) events in the Middle East

b) events in the Persian Gulf

c) US capture Iraq

9. The main goal of the United States from 2001:

a) full disarmament

b) Fighting international terrorism

c) participation in all humanitarian actions

d) the creation of new military bases in Latin America

10. Currently, Russia in foreign policy relies on:

a) nuclear weapon

b) cancellation policy

c) building its own security system

d) generally accepted democratic standards of world order

The skills formed by the student after studying section 1:

1. Calls the dates of the most important events, turning events of modern Russian history.

2. Specifies the sequence of events under one or another period.

3. Calls the place, circumstances, participants, the results of the most important historical events.

4. Conducts the search for the necessary information in one or more sources (when working with documents and other historical materials).

5. Tells (verbally, writing) about historical events, their participants.

6. Reuses the relationship between domestic, regional, global socio-economic, political and cultural problems.

7. Systems the historical material: draws up the tables, draws up abstracts.

8. Systems historical material: draws up the tables, draws up abstracts.

9. Explains the meaning, the importance of the most important historical concepts.

10. Provides estimates of the historical events set out in the educational and additional literature.

11. expresses and argues (explains) its attitude towards events and personalities.

Section 2. Modern World.

Topic 2.1. Economic development of leading states of the world. European countries and the United States.

Basic concepts and terms on the topic: Reconversion, CEV, Marshall Plan, World Economic Crisis, "Velvet Revolution", "Shock Therapy", Deep Theory.

Topics Study Plan (List of questions mandatory for study):

1. Economic development of leading states of the world. Western and Eastern European countries, USA.

2. Russia and the global crisis. Global financial crisis of 2008 and the search for ways out of it.

Summary of theoretical issues:

1 . After the end of the Second World War, which caused huge damage to countries, in front of leading countries of Western Europe and the United States faced the task reconversion- Translation of the economy for peaceful rails. It was a common problem for everyone, but she had national specifics. The United States is the only of the leading countries of the world, which was able to cash in at war. There were 75% of global gold reserves in this state. The dollar became the main currency of the Western world. In Western Europe, the situation was different. Western European countries can be consecrated to three groups: 1) Englandthere were ground battles on its territory; 2) Germany: temporarily lost its sovereignty, suffered from hostilities; 3) the rest of states - participants in the war. The common losses of England exceeded a quarter of all national wealth. In the global market, England fisted the United States. In Germany, the economy was close to collapse: industrial production did not reach 30% of the pre-war level. The population is demoralized. France suffered seriously from the occupation. There was a lack of fuel, raw materials, food, the financial system in the crisis.

With such an initial situation, the process of post-war recovery began. There were two approaches: 1) in France, England, Austria has developed model of state regulation. A number of industries and banks were nationalized. Gas, electric power industries, transport, railways, part of airlines are translated into the ownership of the state. The large state sector was formed as a result of nationalization in France. 2) In the US, the problem of reconversion was solved differently. The focus was made by promotional relations. The state intervened in regulation through taxes and credit.

Principal attention in the United States and Western Europe began to pay labor relations. But they looked at this problem in different ways. In the United States adopted the law of Taffeta Hartley: he introduced hard state control over trade unions. The state went on the way to expand and strengthen the social infrastructure. Key steel the program "Fair course"1948, put forward by the city of Truman. She envisaged an increase in the minimum of wages, the introduction of medical insurance, the construction of low-cost housing, etc. Similar events held the Labor Government K. Ettley in England. Progress in the social sphere was obvious in other Western European countries. The result is a significant increase in government spending on social insurance, science, education, vocational training.

Almost all political parties of Western Europe perceived the ideology and practice of reformism. It was enshrined in the Constitutions of the new generation of France, Italy, partly the GDR. State regulation after the war is the main factor in the development of the Western European economy. This made it possible to overcome the difficulties that Western civilization faced.

1960 - GG. - Time of stormy shocks, peak of liberal reformism. It is at this time that the rapid development of the scientific and technical sphere occurs, the introduction of the newest technologies. In all developed countries, the population occupied in the agrarian sector is reduced. The movement of villagers in the city caused a sharp expansion of the service sector. The emergence of new forms of production organization contributed by HTR. The economy of Western countries was on the phase of the lift. A strong impetus to this was "Marshall Plan"According to which 16 European states received from the US government in 1948-1951. 13 billion dollars An important indicator of economic progress is an increase in production. But, despite the favorable economic climate, intensive liberal legislation in the social sphere, countries could not avoid socio-political upheavals. USA in the 1960s. Faced with a wide range of mass democratic movements: Negro, Youth. Considerable anxiety among the American society caused a "riot of young". The youth performed under the slogans of the denial of traditional values.

France In 1950-1960s. I experienced a number of socio-political upheavals. In 1958 - Events in Algeria. In the fall of 1959, a new constitution was adopted; From the parliamentary republic, the country has become presidential. The government focuses in the hands of S. de Gaulle. In 1962, Algeria received independence. During the reign of de Gaulle, large funds were allocated to the modernization and development of industry, as well as agriculture. Social insurance system expands. But despite this, in 1968 in France an acute crisis broke out, the root causes were the performances of radical students. By 1969, there was a fracture in favor of power.

The impulse "Conservative Wave" gave a crisis of 1974 - 1975. He coincided with a surge inflation, an energy crisis. The main branches of the European industry have decline. In the western community grows distrust of the dollar. Economic problems of the 1970s. It was happening against the backdrop of HTR. Its main manifestation is a massive computerization of production. The processes of internationalization of the economy accelerated.

The process of transformation of the economy was accompanied by a number of social difficulties: an increase in unemployment, rising prices. In the mid-1970s. Frontal character acquires criticism of Keynesianism. Gradually develops a new conservative concept for regulating the economy. The bright representatives were M. Tatcher, R. Reagan. Neoconservatives were guided the ideas of the "free market" and the "proposal theory". The social sphere was made to reduce government spending. All able-bodied citizens had to provide themselves. The second component of the economic course of conservatives is the formula "state for the market". The market system is capable of self-regulation by competition with minimal state intervention in the reproduction process.

Neoconservative recipes quickly won wide popularity among the ruling elite of leading countries in Europe and the United States. A set of events looked as follows: reducing taxes on the corporation with an increase in indirect taxes; Combining a number of social programs; Wide Sale of State Property (reprivatization); Closing of unprofitable enterprises.

AT USAthe revision of socio-economic policies occurred after the Republican R. Reagan came to power. The law on the recovery of the economy was adopted in his rule. Instead of a progressive tax system, a new scale was introduced close to proportional to the crop. At the same time, the state reduced social spending. The results of "Reaganomiki" can be reflected in the wording: "The rich has become richer, the poor is poorer."

AT England The decisive offensive of neoconvators is associated with the name M. Tatcher. The main goal she announced the fight against inflation. The cost control was canceled, removed on the movement of capital. The subsidy of the public sector is sharply reduced, and since 1980 its sale begins. In the social sphere, Thatcher led a hard attack on trade unions. Representatives of trade unions were removed from participation in the activities of advisory government commissions on the problems of socio-economic policies. Sophisticated government was the problem of Northern Ireland. The "iron lady" was a supporter of the power of its solution. The combination of these factors somewhat weakened the position of the ruling party, but in 1987 they again won. The second half of the 80s. It was one of the most favorable epochs in English history: the economy was on the rise, the lifetime of the population increased. In the autumn of 1990, Thatcher left a big policy.

Similar processes occurred in the 1980s. In most countries of the West. Some exception was France, here key positions belonged to socialists led by F. Mitteran. But the effect of the left was reduced. In 1995, the president was J. Shirak. In 2007, he was replaced by N. Sarkazi.

By the beginning of the 1990s. The "conservative wave" gradually went to the decline. It happened in a soft form. R. Reagan changed in 1989 D. Bush - Senior, in 1992 the White House occupied B. Clinton, in 2001 D. Bush came to power. In England, Thatcher replaced the conservative D. Major, in 1997 - Leibor Players leader E. Blair. But this did not mean changes in the internal political course of England. Also developed events in other Western European countries. The last representative of the "Neoconservative Wave" Chancellor of Germany G. In September 1998 is inferior to his post Social Democrat Schirdor. Strengthening problems in the economy at the beginning of the XXI century. caused dissatisfaction with Social - Democrats. In the 2006 elections, Christian democrats received a small majority. The Government of the Big Coalition (XDS and SDPG) led by A. Merkel was formed.

In general, the 1990s. - The time of the relative lull in the socio-political development of the leading countries of the West.

Post-war development of Eastern Europe Was disting from Western European and American. During the Second World War in Eastern Europe, the authority of the left forces, primarily the Communists, significantly increased. In a number of states, they headed anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania). In 1945-1946 Adopted new constitutions, the monarchy was eliminated, the authorities went to popular governments, large enterprises were nationalized. Communists in parliaments occupied strong positions. They called for radical changes. Powerful support for the Communists was presented in the Eastern European countries of Soviet troops. In the conditions of the Cold War, the bet was made to accelerate the transformations. The USSR provided with these countries a huge material assistance.

With the formation of the countries of "People's Democracy" began the process of formation world Socialist System. Economic ties between the USSR and these countries were carried out in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR toughly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.

Since 1947, the control is carried out by the heir of the Comintern - Cominform. In 1949, the Council of Economic Communications ( SEV). As part of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, later entered into Albania. SEV is a peculiar answer to the creation of NATO. Objectives of SEV - Association and coordination of efforts in the development of the economy of the Commonwealth countries.

In the political region, the organization of the Warsaw Treaty was of great importance ( OWD), Created in 1955, its participants were supposed to be an immediate assistance in the case of armed attacks to be attacked by states.

By mid 1950 - As a result of accelerated industrialization in the Central, Southeast European countries, a significant economic potential was created. Stalin's death in 1953 gave hope for political changes. But the USSR suppressed all the attempts of countries to go their way. After the XX Congress of the CPSU (1956), the new course was carried out not everywhere. Speeches were suppressed in Hungary. In the mid-1960s. The situation in Czechoslovakia aggravated. In 1968 an attempt was suppressed by Czechoslovakia to go to his way.

At the turn of 1970 - 1980 - X. Crisis phenomena marked in Poland. Perestroika policies in the USSR caused similar processes in Eastern Europe. Soviet leadership by the end of the 1980s. Refused the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries. But the attempts of reforms often ended in failure. Mass character acquired the flight of the population to the West. In 1990, the Association of GDR and Germany occurred.

In most countries, the Communists were removed from power. Soon the elections were held, the victory was won by the former oppositionists. These events were called "Velvet Revolutions." After political change in all Eastern European countries, transformations in the economy and other areas began. They refused the planned economy, command-administrative system, privatization is carried out. The first transformations were called "Shock therapy". Social bundle enhances, crime grew, corruption.

By the end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI centuries. The situation in most countries has stabilized. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Communications and other post-Soviet states were gradually recovered. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are oriented to the West, most of them entered NATO and the EU. For a domestic political situation in these countries, a shift in the power of the right and left parties is characterized.

2. The main characteristic of 2008, which guarantees him a special place in world and Russian economic history - rapiditydeploying economic crisis. In just a few months in Russia, as well as a number of other leading countries with the emerging market, confidence in the economic miracle was replaced by the expectation of the economic collapse.

The financial crisis in the West pushed interest rates down, and an impression was created that another powerful long-term growth factor was added to steadily high prices for energy resources. One of the favorite activities of the Russian political elite was the discussion of the issue of the country's prospects by 2020 and what place in the size of GDP will take Russia by this time in the world - the fifth or sixth? In connection with the spread of the crisis on European countries while maintaining the high growth rates of China, India and Russia entered decapling theory. In accordance with it, emerging markets should have made the "Motor", which will stop the crisis and leads developed countries from the starting recession. In August-September 2008, it became clear that the financial crisis develops into economic and global, that is, covered all the main economies of the world - both developed and developing.

It is impossible to say that the crisis has come unexpectedly. In early 2008 it was possible to observe the instability of the two main factors of Russian economic growth: high prices for energy resources and the availability of cheap money in the global financial markets. Among the most important sources of crisis are the beginning of a global recession, the fall in oil prices and other goods of Russian exports, the emergence of a balance of payments deficit and strengthening the country's dependence on foreign investment influx, rapidly increasing foreign debts of Russian companies and are not a high probability of paying debts without the help of the state. It is also important that in Russia for eight prosperous years has grown a generation of politicians who are accustomed to "manage welfare growth" and not having crisis management experience; Among the citizens, the feeling of confidence in the future was all wider. Pessimistic forecasts were made in Russia. The most rigid scenario was realized: at the same time the two main sources of growth of the Russian economy were exhausted - the prices of the main products of Russian exports fell and cheap financial resources in the world market disappeared. The crisis has come.

The unfolding crisis goes beyond the usual cyclic. It is possible to distinguish three important features.

First. The crisis that began in the context of globalization, the crisis is unprecedented in scale, covering almost all dynamically developing countries and regions. Moreover, it affects those who were most successful in the last decade; On the contrary, stagnant countries and regions suffered from it to a lesser extent ..

Second. The modern crisis is structural, that is, he implies a serious updating of the structure of the global economy and its technological base.

Third. The crisis is innovative. In recent years, a lot has been said about the importance of innovation, the translation of the economy to the innovation path of development; This is what happened in the financial and economic sphere. Here, financial innovations arose and quickly spread - new financial market tools, which, as it seemed to be able to create conditions for infinite growth.