Avar society, apparently, consisted of four main elements:
1) local, 2) Hunnic, 3) Turkic (Ephthalite), 4) Zhuanzhuan.
The Zhuanzhuan after their defeat in some part were probably included in the Turkic hordes of Central Asia, whose connection with the south of Russia is indisputable. One part of the Zhuanzhuan became part of the Turks of Mongolia, the other fled to China. In direct connection with the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Khazars arose. This penetration of the Mongol-Turkic tribes into Eastern Europe does not remove the possibility of the autochthonous emergence of the Avarian Union as the direct "heir" of the Hunnic formation.

After the collapse of the association of Attila, numerous tribes reappear, which broke away from the Huns and for some time represented completely autonomous formations.
The main tribal formations that were associated with the Hun-Avar association. Here, first of all, it is necessary to single out: 1) Uturgurs, 2) Kuturgurs, 3) Sabirs, 4) later Bulgarians (for Eastern Europe) and 5) Hephthalites or White Huns for Central Asia.

The gur tribes that appeared on the territory of Eastern Europe with their various attributive prefixes (kut - happy, he - ten, ut - fire (or grass), sary - yellow), are the hordes of the Uyghurs, at the end of the 5th century. (492) defeated to the West of Altai by the Zhuanzhuan Khagan Deulun and his uncle Nagai. Since that time, the Uighurs (in Chinese, gaogui) were divided into several parts, and one part of them migrated to the West. They gained their independence after the defeat of the Huns, when private tribal names appear in the steppes of Eastern Europe in general.

Uturgurs and Kuturgurs were called Huns-Cimmerians and made up two branches of the Hunnic tribe. The Uturgurs lived in the area from the confluence of the Don into the Sea of ​​Azov and up to the Cimmerian Bosporus. Kuturgurs occupied a place between the Tisza and the Danube. The Uturgurs penetrated the Crimea, where they encountered the Tetraxite Goths. Kuturgurs in 551 entered into an alliance with the Gepids against the Lombards.

Emperor Justinian, striving to appease the Kuturgurs, entered into an alliance with the Uturgurs, who, after the victory of the Tetraxites, defeated the Kuturgurs, taking many of them prisoner. Rome greatly contributed to the conquest of the Kuturgurs by the Uturgurs. Having recovered from the defeat, in 559 the Kuturgurs, led by Zabergan, crossed the Danube and defeated several Eastern Roman provinces. Justinian succeeded in rousing the Uturgurs again under the leadership of Sandilakh against the Kuturgurs. The struggle of the tribes among themselves weakened them; the Avars thereby obtained the opportunity to subjugate them and make them their subjects.

Sabirs or Savirs (Uighurs) formed into a “nation”, in the words of Y. Klaproth, from several clans. All R. 5th century (456 is indicated) they lived in the North Caucasus and were part of the Avar Khaganate, where they were under the direct control of the Urogs or Onugurs. Prior to that, back in 516, they penetrated through the Caspian gates into Armenia, also occupied Cappadocia, Galatia and Pontus, up to Euchatia, which, however, they did not conquer.

In 528, the Sabirs participated in the uprising of the Mazdakites, like the Hephthalites, but were defeated by the Byzantine troops under the command of Dorotheus. In 531, the Sabirs, again passing through the Caspian Gates, attacked the Byzantine possessions in Armenia, on the Euphrates, in Cilicia and Kirrestika. In 555, 2000 Sabirs under the command of Balmakh, Kutilsiz and Iliger, in alliance with Byzantium, oppose Iran. At that time, the Sabirs were still an impressive military force. By 558 they were defeated by the Varhonites and settled in Albania, and in 585 they were conquered by the Byzantines. The last mention refers to 585, when the Sabirs form part of the Byzantine troops, but as early as 622 they participate in the troops of Heraclius against Sasanian Iran. The final stage of their history is the submission to the Bulgarians.

“The Bulgars called servants and slaves Siberians or Serbs, and in this sense the word Serb was not only used by the Bulgar Slavs, but also by their neighbors, the Serbs, which is why in the ancient Serbian laws a simple person, a subject (plebeujus, rustiens) is not otherwise called a Serb. Even now (1837), despite all sorts of changes, the Serbs and Dalmatians call the peasant sebar, sibor, zipor, etc. Thus, from the proper and popular name of Sabira, or Sebira, a common (common) Serb (villager, villager, peasant) was formed. This type of change in the semantics of tribal names is repeated. Such names arose in general quite often, because the labor of a farmer, in the view of a barbarian nomad, was the lot of a slave first of all.

A significant place in the tribal composition of the Avar union was occupied by the Bulgarians.
The Danube Bulgarians were captured into the orbit of the Hunnic conquest and temporarily subjected to the Hunnic, later Avar influence, which was reflected in their language in the form of the Turkic vocabulary.

Juan period:
522-552 - khan A-na-kuei;
552-554 Khan Kutty.

AVAR INVASION

The Byzantine Menander reports that the Avars “after a long wandering tried to establish contact with the Romans through their envoy Kandikh, demanding tribute from the latter and promising him (Justinian) protection of the Roman possessions.” Menander further notes that "the Avars made war on the Uturgurs with the Zalas (of the Hunnic tribe) and crushed the forces of the Savirs."

The further history of the Avars is connected with the defeat of the Ants (557 AD) and the murder of the Ants envoy Mezamir for his impudent treatment of the Avar Khagan. The Avars were also in conflict with the Western Turks, their Khakan Silzivul.
In 558 - 560 years. The North Caucasus and the eastern Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov were invaded by the Avars under the command of bayana(Bayan) who took the title of kagan.
Most of the settlements ceased to exist in the 6th century. The reason for their death, in particular, those located on the territory of Ukraine, can be seen in the events associated with the struggle of the Slavs with the nomadic tribes of the Avars, which ended with the subjugation of the former.
This event, difficult for Slavic history, was reflected in the Chronicle: "See how you fought for Slavs on the primuchish of the Dulby, drying the Slavs and violence to the Duleb wives." First of all, the Avars destroyed the fortified points of the Slavs. So the Zimnevskoe, Khotomel settlements were burned. In the ash layer at the site of Zimno there was a charred tree, deformed dishes, charred grains of cereals, burnt human bones. On the slope of the mound, below the fortifications, a skeleton of a man, obviously, the defender of the settlement, was found. The attackers were undoubtedly the Avars, as evidenced by the finds of three-bladed arrowheads characteristic of the Avars, some metal ornaments of the Avar type.
After the subjugation of the Sabirs, Uturgurs and Kuturgurs, the Avars attacked the Antes, who sent the ambassador Mezamir to them. The latter was killed by them on the advice of a certain Kotragig (559-561).

In Pannonia, between the Danube and the Carpathians, the Avar Khagan Bayan founded a state association Avar Khaganate(558 - 823).
The Avar Khaganate was a multi-ethnic power, in which the main population was Slavic. Often Byzantine historians identified the Slavs with the Avars.

European Avar Khaganate:
552 - 558 - Khan Kandlik;
558-602 - khan Accordion;
602-630 - Reign in succession of two sons of kagan Bayan.

The capital of the kaganate was hring on the territory of Timisoara.

Administrative management

The supreme power belonged to the kagan, who was elected by the people's assembly. The governor of the kagan was a tudun, who was probably the ruler of a separate part of the country, and a yugur (possibly the chief priest). On behalf of the kagan, tribute was collected in the country by the so-called tarkhans (most likely - to know). Behind the tarkhans - down the hierarchical ladder - were the leaders of tribes and clans. The role of tribal elders was significant in the life of both each tribe and the kaganate as a whole. At least half of the above terms have a Turkic etymology. The same stable Türkic background can also be traced in the analysis of the Avar anthroponyms that have come down to us, which, however, cannot serve as convincing evidence in favor of the Türkic-speaking of the Avars proper, who came out of Asia. The latter - the "physical" Avars - represented the dominant elite in the kaganate, while being in a minority compared to the "ideological" Avars (that is, those who did not have Avar roots, self-identified with the Avar ethnos and defended the interests of the kaganate), not to mention those who did not identify themselves with Avaria in any way, did not show the slightest interest in its strengthening and elevation, but still had to pay tribute and obey the will of the kagan.

Economy

The economic system of the Khaganate was weak and based on nomadic pastoralism; agriculture among the Avars was not developed, and there was a kaganate at the expense of dependent tribes.
Slavery among the Avars was not widespread. This is indicated, in particular, by the fact that at the end of the VI century. Avars, capturing about 10 thousand prisoners, killed them all. It is also known that most of the captive inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula, settled by the Avars in Srem, soon became free. These settlers, who had in the VII century. of their prince appointed by the kagan, were considered by the Avars as a separate "people". In fact, they turned into one of the military-tribal divisions of the kaganate. The quality of jewelry testifies to the high level of development of jewelry art among the Avars. The Avars were good bone carvers, made magnificent carpets, embroideries, fabrics, and were engaged in artistic processing of silver and wood. Throughout Europe, the famous Avar belts with rich metal fittings were in great demand. The art of the Avars, in many respects, was a continuation of the so-called "Scythian animal style" with its small plasticity and stylized images of fantastic animals, as a rule, in dynamic poses, among which the griffin is often found.
Researchers have noticed a certain Byzantine influence on the jewelry art of the Avars. In general, judging by the things discovered by archaeologists, the Avar culture has both proto-Turkic and Iranian, as well as Chinese features. The successful development of jewelry among the Avars was affected by the fact that it was in demand in the Khaganate, since the Avars concentrated in their hands a huge amount of products made of precious metals, including coins of Byzantine coinage.
From Ser. 6th century The Byzantines paid tribute to the Khaganate in gold. The total amount of the annual tribute reached 80 thousand gold solidi, and starting from 599 it increased to 100 thousand. Over time, these amounts became insufficient. In the beginning. 7th century Byzantine emperors paid the Avars "for peace" annually 120 thousand solidi. Until 626, the Avar Khagan was paid about 6 million solidi, which corresponded to 25 tons of gold. This myriad of coins did not enter circulation. Probably, the Avars melted them to make jewelry, a small part was divided among the leaders.

Art

The quality of jewelry testifies to the high level of development of jewelry art among the Avars. The Avars were good bone carvers, made magnificent carpets, embroideries, fabrics, and were engaged in artistic processing of silver and wood. Throughout Europe, the famous Avar belts with rich metal fittings were in great demand. The art of the Avars, in many respects, was a continuation of the so-called "Scythian animal style" with its small plasticity and stylized images of fantastic animals, as a rule, in dynamic poses, among which the griffin is often found.
Researchers have noticed a certain Byzantine influence on the jewelry art of the Avars. In general, judging by the things discovered by archaeologists, the Avar culture has both Iranian and Chinese features. The successful development of jewelry among the Avars was affected by the fact that it was in demand in the Khaganate, since the Avars concentrated in their hands a huge amount of products made of precious metals, including coins of Byzantine coinage.

Armament

In the clothing and weapons of the warriors of the kaganate, a mixture of Avar, Germanic and Byzantine styles is often traced, which looks quite logical in view of the multi-ethnicity of its population. The backbone of the Avar power was primarily a well-organized plate cavalry. The very concept of "chivalry" in Europe goes back to this type of horsemen. The Avars first introduced Europe to iron stirrups and blades with a one-sided blade - the prototype of later sabers.

military tactics

The military tactics of the Avars had much in common with the tactics of the later Mongols: exhausting the enemy with endless maneuvers without accepting close combat ("raid - rebound"), accompanied by salvo shots from long-range bows, followed by the unexpected introduction of heavily armed elite plate cavalry, designed to demoralize and cut through enemy formations. These actions were often combined with the suggestion to the enemy of false ideas about the proximity of his victory and the helplessness of the enemy, who was allegedly forced to evade and retreat all the time. The Byzantines carefully studied these methods and recognized them as the most effective, having borrowed from the Avars not only their "revolutionary" stirrups - which allowed them to deliver powerful chopping blows and, in general, to stay steadily in the saddle - but also the type of such a formation, when in front - equestrian archers without heavy armor (skirmishers avoiding close combat), as well as Avar pikes with belt loops and some elements of felt protective ammunition. Among other things, the Avars skillfully used the Slavic infantry, powerless against the Avar-type cavalry, but fought well in the forests and swampy areas.

The power of the Avar Khaganate over the Slavs was drawn to the middle. VII century., When the Avars suffered a series of major defeats from the Byzantines, Czechs and Slovenes, and finally after the defeat in the battles of 635 - 641. with the Bulgarian Union of Tribes, headed by Kurbat.

The Avars demanded land from the Romans for settlement and sent a special embassy to Justinian in 562. However, the envoys were delayed, as a certain Ikunimon betrayed them, saying that the Avars conceived an uprising immediately after moving to Roman lands. The delay of the ambassadors is also noted by Menander as the reason for the Avars' dissatisfaction with the Romans and their Khakan Bayan's attempt to defeat the Romans.
Shafarik points out that “the Avars, by the way, also leaned so stubbornly on the Eastern Antes, so that, having instilled fear in the other Western Slavs, it would be easier through them to open their way to the middle of Europe, the Panonian Danube, this paradise of nomads and robbers. tribes."

Their camp, divided into nine large circles, surrounded by a moat and embankments (567-568), "occupies both sides of the Danube, from where they terribly smashed and crowded the surrounding peoples for too 250 years." Safarik also suggests that at this time (in 563) the Dulebs were subjugated during the invasion of Hungary by the Avars. Dulebs lived between the Bug and Styr and penetrated into Hungary through the Tatra Mountains near Dukla. It was one of the oldest and most powerful unions of Slavic tribes that retained their significance despite the defeat inflicted on them by the Avars. It is obvious that its formation occurred after the collapse of the Hunnic tribal union.

The Avars manage to receive tribute from the Romans for a number of years. They could not spread their expansion to the East, since there, in particular over the Hephthalites, the Western Turks dominated. Naturally, after the refusal of the Romans (in about 565) to pay tribute to the Avars, the Avars oriented towards the West.

Thanks to the constant relationship of the Avars with the Romans, we have received indications that the Avars communicated with the Alans, in particular, they asked the Alanian king Saros to facilitate their access to Constantinople.

Byzantium knew that the Avars were under the rule of the Turks.

Due to the multi-tribal nature of the Avar Khaganate, it is difficult to establish their ethnic origin, especially since the ethnicity of the Zhuanzhuan has not yet been established, some of which became part of the Avar Khaganate. It can be pointed out that in the Avar Khaganate there were Turkic-speaking tribes, Slavic, and probably Finno-Ugric. Mongolian elements are also noted. So, for example, the name of the leader of the Avars "Bayan" is nothing but the Mongolian word rich. In the tribal name "varhunits" the ending "t" is one of the Mongolian plural forms. It is possible that the Mongol elements in the Avar alliance were brought by the Zhuanzhuans, whose Mongolism is now more or less established. Byzantine and Western European sources (for example, Menander, Paul Deacon) connect the Avars with the Huns, pointing (Menander) to the similarity of the Avars with the Huns, in customs and language, or to the genealogical connection of the Avars with the Huns (Paul Deacon). Byzantine historians were struck by the obviously oriental custom of wearing braids by the Avars.

All this only proves that the Avar Khaganate, regardless of how many newcomers were included in it, continued the history of local tribal formations at a new stage of the barbarian semi-state. Written sources say little about the economy of the Avars. As already mentioned, back in 562 they sent an embassy to Justinian with a request to provide them with land for settlement. It can be assumed that they were going to switch to pastoral forms of cattle breeding, i.e. coexisting with agriculture. The camp on the Danube was their main headquarters. Here the opportunity was created for the settling Avars to engage in agriculture, especially since the Kaganate included Slavic tribes who knew agriculture long before that. However, even in con. 6th century Avars, as a rule, were pastoralists.

Konstantin Porphyrogenitus reports: “Equestrian warriors gathered from other cities of Dalmatia every year and about a thousand were sent from Salona to stand guard on the Danube River for the sake of the Avars. The Avars lived on the other side of the Danube River, where the Turks are now, and led a nomadic lifestyle. Those who came every year from Dalmatia often saw cattle and people across the river. One day they decided to cross over to find out who lives there. Having crossed in this way, they found only the women and children of the Avars, while the men and youths were on the campaign. This evidence points to the common economic basis of the Avars and Huns-pastors. The Avars were pastoral nomads who expanded their economic base through plunder and conquest. The conquest served as an exchange with the agricultural peoples, obtaining slaves, tributaries and new territories.

Thanks to the embassy of Maniach in 568 and the return of Zemarch, the Romans directly contacted the Turks and learned that the latter considered the Avars to be their subjects. Since that time, the Avars were called pseudo-Avars.

Byzantium's refusal to pay tribute gave the Avars a reason to go to Western Europe, where, according to Gregory of Tours, they had clashes with the tribes that inhabited Thuringia, fought with the Austrasian Franks, led by their king Sigibert, even capturing him on the Elbe.
In 570, a certain Aspsych was sent from the Avars to Byzantium. Only after a successful battle with the Byzantine commander Tiberius, the agreement proposed by the Avars was approved and implemented.
Fearing military clashes with the Asian Turks, the Avars enter into an alliance with Byzantium and enjoy its protection. This arouses the indignation of the leader of the Turks, Turksanf, who told the Byzantine ambassador Valens (576) that the "Varhonites" were subjects and slaves of the Turks. The Turks considered their subjects not only Varhonites, but also Uturgurs.

In 578, the Avars, at the insistence of Byzantium, oppose the Slavs who attacked it and their leader Lawrence. Under the pretext of hostilities against the Slavs, Bayan breaks into Pannonia, and the struggle with Byzantium for the city of Sirmium is resumed. The Avars used the moment when Byzantium was distracted by the war with Iran. The struggle for Sirmium ended successfully for the Avars. Peace with Iran was concluded by Byzantium in 591.

In 582, the Avars captured the strategic Byzantine outpost of Sirmium, and the following year, Singidun devastated Illyria.
In 597, the Avars captured Dalmatia, flooding it with Croats.
In 599 they besiege Tomis on the Black Sea coast.
Around 600, the Avars, together with the Horutan Slavs, settled Inner Norik.
The Avars, together with the Lombards, opposed the Gepids and their leader Gunimund. They occupied the territory of the Gepids, and later defeated the Lombards.
The defeat of the Gepids, the allies of Byzantium, was carried out by the Avars together with the Lombards, demanding from them "a tenth of all the four-legged and if they defeat the enemies, then the Lombards should give up to the Avars half of the booty and all the land of the Gepids." At this time, the Avars united many tribes. Bayan agreed to leave the Byzantine possessions, demanding a relatively small tribute from the Romans, but offended by the undiplomatic behavior of the Roman envoys, “ordered ten thousand Unns, called Kontrigurs (Kuturgurs), to cross the Sava River and ravage Dalmatia, and he himself, with all the army that was with him, went through Istres and had a stay within the Gepids.

Further attempts by Bayan to demand tribute from the Byzantines are known. So, for example, I will note the embassy of Targitius, who demanded tribute that Justinian paid to the Kuturgurs and Uturgurs, “since Bayan currently owns these peoples, you will also give us (Avars) Usdivad, Giped and his people; no one will deny that these are Bayanov's slaves. In his second embassy, ​​Targitius demanded the city of Sirmium and tribute for all the years. The embassies of Targitia were unsuccessful and ended in a war between the Avars and the Byzantines.

In 618, the Avars, together with the Slavs, besiege Thessalonica.
In 623, the Western Slavs, led by Samo, raised an uprising against the Avars. After the victory of the uprising, the former Frankish merchant was elected prince. He waged successful wars with the Avars and the Franks - in particular, after the victory in 631, he won the lands inhabited by the Lusatian Serbs from the Franks.
In 626, the Avars supported Persia in the Iranian-Byzantine war and, at the head of the Slavic armies, laid siege to Constantinople. The Byzantines defeated the Avars due to the fact that the Slavs could not provide the Avars with assault ships of the proper quality, and then, offended by the kagan, who was angry about this, they left the place of deployment. The Avars, without the Slavic infantry and assault boats, were unable to take such a well-fortified city as Constantinople.

As a result of the defeat of the Avars near Constantinople in 626, the Kutrigurs separated from the Khaganate.

In 631, the Avars temporarily suppressed the uprising of the Kutrigurs. Khan Alzek, after an unsuccessful attempt to seize the throne in the Avar Khaganate, leaves the Khaganate with his horde.
By 632 khan Kubrat uniting the Kutrigur, Utigur and Onogur tribes, he creates the medieval state of Great Bulgaria, finally ousting the Avars from the Northern Black Sea region and the Lower Danube.
By 640, the Croats had driven the Avars out of Dalmatia. It is probably to this event that the following words from the poems of George Pisid refer: A Scythian (i.e. Avars) kills a Slav and dies himself, so they fight in blood until mutual destruction.

Franco-Avar War

The final defeat of the Avar Khaganate suffered in the battle. 8th century as a result of the Franco-Avar war.
In 788, the Bavarian Duke Tassilon III managed to conclude an alliance with the Avars against the Franks. However, in the same year, their army was defeated and Bavaria became part of the Frankish state. Then Charlemagne developed a plan for the final reprisal against the Avars. This marked the beginning of a long struggle between the Franks and the Khaganate.
In 791, the Franks launched a major counter-offensive against the Avars, in which Slavic detachments also took part, including the Karantans (presumably one of the ancestors of the Slovenes, Croats). The Frankish troops set out in two columns: one, under the leadership of Charlemagne, captured the Avar border fortifications in the lower reaches of the Rab, the other, led by Charles's son, Pepin, moved from the Friuli lowland and, having reached the upper reaches of the Sava, captured the Avar hring here.
Already these first failures led to internal unrest, which resulted, among other things, in the murder of the yugur and the kagan, which allowed the Friulian margrave Eric in 796 to inflict a decisive blow on the Avars and take the capital of the kaganate - the main hring of the Avar tribe, which was probably located in Transylvania (Ring). The Franks won a complete victory, which eliminated the political independence of the Avar Khaganate. Wagon trains with treasures accumulated by the Avars over the centuries went to Aachen. The situation was aggravated by the active anti-Avar position of the Proto-Bulgarians. Despite the hopeless situation, the Avars - in the vast majority - did not want to either admit their defeat or migrate to a safe place, but, on the contrary, fiercely resisted, as a result of which the losses were so catastrophic that they could never recover from them. Almost all the nobility perished.
Nevertheless, the Avars did not resign themselves to defeat for a long time. In 797 they rebelled, and the Franks were forced to repeat the campaign, again crowned with success. At the end of 797, the Avar ambassadors again swore allegiance to Charlemagne. However, the uprising rose again in 799, and in 802 Frankish officials were killed. Separate performances of the Avars against the Franks took place until 803. In 803-804. Bulgarian ruler Khan Krum captured all the Avar lands up to the Middle Danube. The Avars themselves within these territories were clearly quickly assimilated, probably due to the kinship of the ethnic groups of the Avars and Proto-Bulgarians. In 798, an archbishopric was established in Salzburg, which preached the Christian religion to the Avars. In 805, the kagan himself accepted the new faith. In the same year, the Bulgarian Khan Krum conquered the lands of the Timochan from the Avar Khaganate.
In 814, on the eve of the Frankish defeat, the Avar was headed by the tudun Kazhd, who later took the name Theodorus.

Disappearance of the Avars

Turning the remnants of the Avars into their vassals and placing a baptized kagan at their head, the Franks granted them, within the Eastern Mark, part of the region, with a center near Savaria (now the city of Szombathely, which belongs to Hungary). Soon, the Quarantans began to penetrate here. Their onslaught was so intense that in 811 the Franks were forced to defend the Avars. The last time, as a separate tribe that was in vassal dependence on the Franks, the Avars are mentioned in sources dated 822. Six years later, during the administrative reforms of the Frankish state, they were turned into royal subjects. During the ninth century the Avars are gradually dissolving among the Slavic and German settlers who have flooded into the Transdanubia.
In 899, the Hungarians captured Pannonia, with whom the remnants of the Avars merge.