Introduction
Chapter 1. Theoretical Fundamentals of International Trade Research
1.1. International Trade Theory
1.2. The history of the formation of international trade
1.3. Main Indicators International Trade
Chapter 2. Modern World Trade
2.1. State regulation of international trade international
2.2. Trade structure
Chapter 3. Modern Trends in International Trade Development
3.1. Forms of international trade and their features at the present stage
Conclusion
List of sources used

Introduction

International Trade - Exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade leads to the fact that prices or demand and supply depends on the events occurring in the world.

Global trade makes it possible to purchase products and countries products and use services inaccessible in their own countries. Thanks to international trade, we can buy foreign goods. We can choose not only between domestic competitors, but also between foreign trade, a large competitive environment appears between foreign trade, and the sellers are trying to offer more favorable prices to the consumer.

International Trade allows rich countries to more effectively use their resources, whether labor, technology or capital. If one country can produce some product more efficiently than another, then it can sell it for more low pricesTherefore, the goods of such a country will enjoy great demand. And if the country cannot produce some product or service, it can purchase them from another country, it is called specialization in international trade.

Chapter 1. Theoretical Fundamentals of International Trade Research

1.1. International Trade Theory

International trade is a form of communication between commodity producers of different countries arising from the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. The following definition is often given in the literature: International Trade is a process of purchase and sale, carried out between buyers, vendors and intermediaries in different countries.

International Trade includes exports and imports of goods, the ratio between which is called the trade balance. The UN statistical reference books provide data on the volume and dynamics of world trade as the amount of the cost of exporting all countries of the world.

Under the term "foreign trade" means trading of any country with other countries, consisting of a paid importation (import) and paid export (exports) of goods.

International trade is a paid cumulative trade between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "International Trade" is used in a narrower value: for example, the aggregate trade turnover of industrialized countries, the cumulative trade turnover of developing countries, the cumulative trade turnover of the countries of any continent, the region, for example, countries in Eastern Europe, etc.

National production differences are determined by different vessels by production factors - labor, land, capital, as well as a different internal need for certain goods. The effect that external trade on the dynamics of national income growth, consumption and investment activity is characterized by each country quite defined quantitative dependencies and can be calculated and expressed as a specially developed coefficient - multiplier.

1.2. The history of the formation of international trade

Arching in ancient times, world trade reaches significant scales and acquires the nature of sustainable international commodity and money relations at the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries.

The powerful impulse of this process was the creation in a number of industrially more developed countries (England, Holland, etc.) of large engine production, oriented on large-scale and regular imports of raw materials from economically less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, and exports to these industrial goods countries. , mostly consumer purposes.

In the XX century World trade survived a number of deep crises. The first one was associated with the world war of 1914-1918, he led to a long and deep violation of world turnover, which lasted until the end of World War II, which shocked the entire structure of international economic relations to the ground. In the postwar period, world trade faced new difficulties associated with the collapse of the colonial system. Nevertheless, all these crises were overcome. In general, the characteristic feature of the post-war period was noticeable acceleration of the development of world trade, which has reached the highest level in the entire previous history of human society. Moreover, the growth rates of world trade exceeded the growth rate of world GDP.

From the second half of the 20th century, world trade is developing in high rates. In the period 1950-1994 The global trade turnover has grown 14 times. According to Western specialists, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as the "golden age" in the development of international trade. Thus, the average annual growth rate of world exports was in the 50s. 6.0%, in the 60s. - 8.2%. In the period from 1970 to 1991, the average annual growth rate was 9.0%, in 1991-1995. This indicator was equal to 6.2%. Accordingly, the volume of world trade increased. Recently, this figure is growing on average by 1.9% per year.

In the post-war period, the annual growth of world exports was achieved by 7%. However, already in the 70s, it fell to 5%, further declining in the 80s. In the late 80s, global exports demonstrated a noticeable revival - up to 8.5% in 1988. After a clear recession in the early 90s, from the mid-90s, he again demonstrates high steady rates, even despite significant annual fluctuations caused by first-September terrorist attacks in the USA, and then the war in Iraq and caused by the surroundings of world prices for Energy.

From the second half of the XX century, the unevenness of the dynamics of foreign trade was noticeably manifested. This affected the ratio of forces between countries in the global market. The dominant position of the United States was shaken. In turn, the export of Germany approached the American, and in some years he even exceeded him. In addition to Germany, exports and other Western European countries increased by a prominent pace. In the 80s, a significant jerk in the field of international trade did Japan. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to be knocked out into leaders by competitiveness factors. In the same period, "New Industrial Countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan joined it. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States reiterates the leading position in the world in competitiveness. They are closely going to Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, who earlier for six years held first place. As long as developing countries mainly remain suppliers of raw materials, food and relatively simple finished products to the world market. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials is noticeably lagging behind the overall growth rates of world trade. Such a lag is determined by the development of substitutes for raw materials, more economical use, deepening its processing. Industrially developed countries have almost completely captured the market for high-tech products. At the same time, individual developing countries, primarily "new industrial countries", managed to achieve significant shifts in the restructuring of their exports, increasing the share of finished products, industrial products in it, incl. Machinery and equipment. Thus, the share of industrial exports of developing countries in the overall world volume in the early 90s amounted to 16.3%. Now, this figure is already approaching 25%.

1.3. Main Indicators International Trade

The foreign trade of all countries in aggregate forms international trade, which is based on the international division of labor. In theory, world trade is characterized by such main indicators:

• Foreign trade turnover of countries, which is an amount of export and import;
• Import - import from abroad to the country of goods and services. Import material values To implement them in the domestic market - visible imports. Import components, semi-finished products, etc. is indirect import. Costs in foreign currency for overloading goods, passengers, tourist insurance, technology and other services, as well as transfers of companies and individuals abroad are included in t. N. invisible imports.
• Export - export from the country of goods and services sold by a foreign buyer for sale in the foreign market, or for processing in another country. It also includes transportation of goods by transit through a third country, the removal of goods brought from other countries for sale in the third country, i.e. re-export.

In addition, international trade is characterized by such indicators:

• growth rates in general;
• growth rates on production growth;
• the growth rates of world trade regarding past years.

The first of these indicators is determined by the ratio of the indicator of the international trade in the year under consideration to the base year. With it, it is possible to characterize the percentage ratio of changes in the volume of international trade over a certain period of time.

The attitude of the growth rates of international trade volumes to production growth rates is the starting point to determine several characteristics important to describe international trade dynamics. First, this figure characterizes the production capacity in the country, that is, the number of goods and services it can provide on the world market during a certain period of time. Secondly, it can be assessed in general the level of development of the productive forces of states from the standpoint of international trade.

The last of these indicators is the assignment of the volume of international trade this year to the value of the base year, which is always taken to the current year before the basic.

Chapter 2. Modern World Trade

2.1. State regulation of international trade

Modern foreign trade, as a rule, requires larger state intervention, rather than domestic trade.

The combination of measures that are used by states in the field of foreign economic activity to solve certain socio-economic tasks is the content of their foreign economic policy. She, in turn, acts as an integral part of economic policies, including the external - general course of the state in international relations.

In the process of state regulation of foreign trade, countries may adhere to:

• free trade policies opening the domestic market for foreign competition (liberalization);
• protection policies that protect the domestic market from foreign competition;
• moderate trading policy, in some proportions combining free trade and protectionism elements.

Sometimes a free trade policy and protectionism can be carried out at the same time, but for various products.

Although there is a general trend towards liberalization, countries actively use protectionist measures to achieve various purposes: protection of the national industry, the preservation of jobs and maintain employment, the creation of new competitive industries, replenish the profitability of the budget.

State regulation of foreign trade in the form of the application of protectionist measures is an important means of achieving the strategic goals of the country's economic development.

State regulation of foreign trade is implemented using tariff and non-tariff methods for regulating foreign trade.

Tariff methods for regulating foreign trade are a systematic list of customs duties (tariffs), which are subject to goods.

There are two main types of tariffs:

• fiscal tariffs used by the state in order to increase the influx of cash resources.
• protective tariffs used by the state to protect the national industry from foreign competition. They make foreign products more expensive than a similar domestic, which is why consumers are preferred.

In addition, on the subject of charging tariffs are divided into:

• advalorn - charged as a percentage of the cost of goods;
• specific - charged in the form of a certain amount of money due to weight, volume or thing goods;
• mixed - imply the simultaneous use of ad valient and specific duties.

The global economy is characterized by a tendency to a gradual decrease in customs duties.

Non-tariff methods for regulating foreign trade include measures aimed at indirect and administrative import restriction in order to protect certain sectors of national production. These include: licensing and quoting imports, anti-dumping and compensatory duties, the so-called "voluntary export restrictions", the system of minimum import prices.

License As a form of regulation of foreign trade activities is a document for the right to import or export of goods issued by the importer or exporter by the state body. The use of such a state regulation method allows countries to provide direct impact on foreign trade, limiting its size, sometimes even completely forbidden exports or imports of individual goods.

Along with licensing, such a quantitative limitation is applied as quotation.

Quota is a limitation of the number of imported goods of a certain name and type. Liquor than licenses, quotas reduce foreign competition in the domestic market in a certain industry.

In recent decades, more than a hundred agreements on "voluntary export restriction" and the establishment of minimum import prices are concluded between states participating in the international trade exchange.

"Voluntary export restriction" is a limitation when foreign firms voluntarily limit their exports to certain countries. Of course, they give this consent against their will, based on the avoidance of more rigid trading barriers.

One of the means of competitive struggle of manufacturers for foreign markets is dumping, i.e. Sale of goods in foreign markets at prices are lower than in the domestic market (as a rule, below production costs). Dumping is one of the forms of unfair competition that violate the freedom of entrepreneurial activity in the international market of goods by applying unauthorized foreign trade methods.

All states, including Russia, have legislation aimed at preventing the sale of goods by a foreign exporter in their market for renting (dumping) prices and suppress such sales through the use of so-called anti-dumping duties. Anti-dumping regulation is carried out both with the help of national legislation of the relevant party and on the basis of international treaties.

Countries began to introduce anti-dumping duties, which are used when importing goods at prices below the expected costs of their production.

In addition, states due to international treaties are conducting joint investigations if there are suspicions in exporting for dumping prices.

Since anti-dumping investigations affect not only specific product manufacturers, but also the state as a whole, such issues can be resolved and permitted both in accordance with the law established and on an official basis, i.e. Through negotiations of interested governments involved in anti-dumping investigations, and such negotiations are sometimes completed by the settlement of controversial issues on a mutually acceptable basis (making obligations to terminate or reducing the volume of supply of relevant goods on dumping prices or by voluntary establishing imported quotas for importing this product).

Deliveries of goods to foreign markets on dumping prices may have two-way origins.

First, the deliberate export of goods at random prices in large quantities and for a long time may have the goal of the seizure of the foreign market and displacing competitors. This is a typical case of violation of the principle of competition with the use of non-permitting trade methods (unscrupulous competition). Sometimes, as a "justification" of such actions, exporters refer to high import duties for this product in the country of importation. In this case, in order to be able to deliver the goods to a foreign market, the prices of it are significantly reduced, otherwise a foreign buyer will not be purchased by such a product in general, because it will be uncompetitive.

However, all similar "arguments" did not serve and cannot serve as an excuse for dumping, and the importer state applies in such cases its legislation on protective measures during dumping. So it is done, and this is normal and legitimate.

Secondly, the export of goods at low prices may take place without the preliminary intention of the "dumping" foreign market. This includes ignorance of prices and a general situation in the importing market in relation to this product.

It is necessary to note that if the goods are exported in small quantities, but at prices that may be recognized by "dumping", the deaths in dumping may not follow, since in such cases there will be no two most important criteria for the use of anti-dumping measures: the fact of delivery Goods for dumping prices and at the same time the fact of causing damage to the economy of the country of imports.

2.2. Trade structure

Along with an energetic increase in the volume of world turnover, its nomenclature is also changing. Statistics noted the leading growth of trading with finished goods, including especially machinery and equipment. The highest pace is growing in electronics, communications, electrical products. In general, ready-made products account for up to 70% of the cost of international trade. The remaining 30% is divided among themselves approximately equally mining industries producing commodities, and agricultural production. At the same time, the share of commodities tends to relative reduction.

As for the finished goods, in comparison with the recent past, when the international trade in the international commodity turnover was presented mainly by the production of the product, in modern international trade, the exchange of semi-finished products, intermediate products, separate parts and parts of the finished product plays the exchange of semi-finished products. Reducing the specific gravity of commodities in international trade is associated with three main reasons. First of all, they include an unprecedented increase in the production of all sorts of synthetic, replacing natural materials. This trend is based on significant science successes and the introduction of its results in chemical production. Natural materials are displaced by various plastics, artificial rubber and other synthetic derivatives. The commodity structure of exports and imports of various countries for 2006 is presented.

A significant role in reducing the consumption of raw materials was to introduce into the production of resource-saving technologies, as well as expanding the use of local raw materials instead of imported.

At the same time, despite the development of energy-saving technologies, the volumes of international trade in oil and gas increased noticeably, but not as energy carriers - oil and gas act in this case to a large extent as raw materials for rapidly developing chemistry.

In the geographical distribution of international trade, it is primarily a leading pace of its growth between industrialized countries. These countries account for up to 60% of the cost of world turnover. At the same time, developing countries up to 70% of their exports are also sent to industrial countries. Thus, there is a kind of concentration of international trade around industrialized countries, which is not surprising - the United States, Japan and Germany, for example, having 9% of the world's population, concentrate to a third of world purchasing power.

The nature of foreign economic relations between industrialized and developing countries is changing. Developing countries change their profile of so-called agrarian and raw materials. They are increasingly passing the functions of suppliers for industrialized countries by materials and laborious products, as well as products causing environmental complications.

This is due to a number of cases with the cheap labor, the approach of natural resources to production places, lower environmental standards characteristic of developing countries.

In addition, the presence of new industrial countries becomes more noticeable in international trade. This is primarily South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore. Malaysia, Indonesia, China are gaining weight.

All this together with the economic power of Japan significantly changed the geography of world economy and international trade, giving it a three-pole character: North America, Western Europe and the Pacific region. However, it is impossible, however, not to notice the rapid successes of Latin American countries forming the fourth economic pole in global world-economic relations.

2.3. International trade in the conditions of economic crisis

The World Trade Organization is concerned about the strengthening of the protectionist measures of many countries as part of the exit from the crisis. Despite the fact that such Barriers of the United States in the 30s served as one of the reasons for the Great Depression, the example did not become a lesson.

Back in November, at the Grand Twenty Summit, G20 in Washington, the meeting participants noted the impossibility of admissible to introduce barrier measures and barriers. However, promises eventually remained an empty declaration. Since the statement, many countries have introduced additional measures to protect the national economy.

France has created a 7 billion fund for investment in the company, by expressing President Nicolas Sarkozy, it is necessary to protect against foreign predators. China has changed the export tax system to make products of its companies more competitive in world markets, while while maintaining the policy of weak yuan. In the United States allocated a package of state aid for domestic automakers, which put in unequal conditions of their foreign competitors who also have American plants. In addition, the US plan to introduce duties into Italian mineral water And French cheese in response to the restriction of the import of American meat in the EU. India has introduced separate administrative restrictions on import steel and forests and considers the introduction of anti-dumping duties for steel and chemical products. Vietnam raised the import duty to the steel one and a half times.

Russia, in turn, introduced 28 different measures to introduce tariffs for imported goods and subsidizing their own exports. Among others, there was an increase in import duties on foreign cars, shoes and some food products, as well as the creation of state support for national enterprises.

Meanwhile, economists warn that the "creeping" protectionist steps observed in many countries can complicate the exit of the global economy from the crisis. According to the WTO, the number of anti-dumping investigations has increased by 40% in 2008 compared with the level of last year.

The situation resembles observers the period of the Great Depression, when, in the context of the Global Economic Downturn, developed countries actively defended their manufacturers with legislative measures. In the USA in 1930, the SMOOT-Hawley Tariff Act was adopted (The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act), which gave the start of the "Trade War". The law rose rates of duties for more than 20 thousand imported goods. Trying to protect the inner manufacturer in this way, the authorities have reduced the already low purchasing power. The result was the response of other states raised duties to American goods, which led to a sharp drop in trade turnover between the United States and European countries and finally encountered the economy into great depression.

"By itself, this law was not a strong shock, but he provoked shock, as he led to the response actions of other countries," reminds Professor of the economy of the Dartmut College Dag Irvin.

The largest developed countries confirmed their determination to support exports by lending to ensure the influx of liquid funds into international trade as the global economy out of the current financial crisis. The initiator of the statement was the organization of economic cooperation and development (OECD) - the Association of Government of the developed countries, whose headquarters is located in Paris.

The global financial crisis has affected the system of commercial lending, which keeps all international trade, today loans that make it possible to international supplies of goods, cost exporters and importers much more expensive. The significant players of the financial and credit market, such as banks, or do not have the necessary funds, are either too afraid of risk to provide loans for foreign trade operations during economic uncertainty. The decline in export lending is negatively reflected on the volumes of foreign trade turnover, especially in poor and less creditworthy countries, which is so difficult to get a loan. However, the authorities hope that the maintenance of export lending at the agreed level will eliminate the gap created by a temporary decrease in the market capacity.

"The Financial Times" quoted by the Secretary General of the OECRR Angel Gurrya, who called the guaranteed amount of export lending by the key to the "lubricant of the wheels" of the International Financial System. "It is impossible to count on economic growth if the banks will not do what they should be done, namely - to provide loans; And even more so if they instead will be engaged in charging means to compensate for the decline in capital, "Gurrya said.

Chapter 3. Modern Trends in International Trade Development

3.1. Forms of international trade and their features at the present stage

Wholesale. The main organizational form in the wholesale trade of countries with a developed market economy is independent firms engaged in trade itself. But with the penetration into the wholesale trade in industrial firms they created their own shopping apparatus. Such in the United States Wholesale branches of industrial firms: wholesale offices engaged in information service of various customers, and wholesale bases. Large FRG firms have their own supply departments, special bureaus or sales departments, wholesale warehouses. Industrial companies create subsidiaries for the sale of their products to firms and can have their own wholesale network.

An important parameter in wholesale trade is the ratio of universal and specialized wholesale firms. Universal can be considered a tendency to specialization: in specialized firms, labor productivity is significantly higher than in universal. Specialization is commercial and functional (i.e. restriction of functions performed by the wholesale company).

A special place in wholesale trade commercial exchanges. They look like trading houses where they trade in various goods, both both in retail. Mostly commercial exchanges have their own specialization. Public Exchange Trade is based on the principles of a double auction when increasing buyers' proposals are found with declining suggestions. With the coincidence of the prices of buyer's offers and the seller is a deal. Each prisoner is publicly registered and communicated to the public via communication channels.

The price change is determined by the number of sellers wishing to sell goods at a given price level and buyers who are ready to purchase this product at this level price. The peculiarity of modern stock trading in high liquidity is that the difference between the prices of selling offers and purchase is 0.1% of the price level and lower, while on stock exchanges this indicator reaches 0.5% of the price of shares and bonds, and in the markets Real estate - 10% or more.

In developed countries, the Exchange of Real Goods has almost no left. But in certain periods in the absence of other forms of the organization of the market, the Exchange of Real Goods can play a prominent role. The Institute of Exchange did not lose its importance for international trade, in connection with the transformation of the real goods from the Exchange to the market of rights to the goods, or in the so-called futures exchange.

Stock exchanges. Securities trade is carried out in international money markets, that is, on the stock exchanges of such major financial centers as New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Tokyo, Zurich. Securities trade is made in the attendant on the stock exchange, or the so-called Exchange Time. As sellers and buyers, only brokers (brokers), which perform orders of their customers, and receive a certain percentage of turnover for it. For securities trading - shares and bonds - there are so-called brokerage firms, or broker offices.

At this time, trade in securities both in the domestic and foreign market is of great importance for the development of world trade as a whole. Volumes of turnover within this form of international trade are steadily increasing, although it is susceptible to the strong influence of foreign policy factors.

Trade fairs. One of the best ways to search for contact between the manufacturer and the consumer are fairs and exhibitions. On the thematic fairs, manufacturers are exhibiting their products on exhibition spaces, and the consumer has the opportunity to choose, buy or order the goods you need right on the spot. The fair is an extensive exhibition, where stands with goods and services are distributed according to the subject, industries, destination, etc.

In France, numerous sectoral exhibitions are organized by the organizational societies, in most cases with their fair areas belonging to the Chamber of Commerce. In the fairground in Italy, the largest fair company is the Milan Fair, which has no competitors on his annual turnover, which is 200-250 million euros. It mainly rents exhibition pavilions, but acts as an organizer. In the UK fairs, two large, operating and outside the country, the company - Rid and Blenheim, whose annual turnover ranges from 350 to 400 million euros are distinguished. However, they receive a significant part of its turnover and outside the UK. According to official data, about 30 percent of ITALY foreign trade is produced through fairs, including 18 percent through Milan. It has 20 representative offices abroad. The share of foreign participants and visitors on average is 18 percent. The fairs in Germany as a whole occupy a leading place in Europe. Recently, the annual turnover, for example, the Berlin Fair exceeds 200 million euros and has a steady tendency to increase.

The role of fairs in the future will not decrease, but, on the contrary, will increase. With the development of international division of labor, which will be deepened even more thanks to free trade in Europe. For some exceptions, no interference and restrictions were created for some exceptions to visitors and participants.

3.2. The main problems of international trade and the ways to overcome them

International trade is a process of purchase and sale, carried out between buyers, vendors and intermediaries in different countries. It is associated with many practical and financial difficulties for firms participating in it. Along with the usual trade and commerce issues, which arise in any type of business, there are additional problems in international trade:

• time and distance - credit risk and execution time;
• changes in foreign currency exchange rates - currency risk;
• differences in the laws and rules;
• government decisions - currency control, as well as sovereign risk and country risk.

The main consequence of exchange rate fluctuations for international trade is the risk for exporter or importer, which consists in the fact that the cost of foreign currency, which they apply in their trade turnover will differ from the one on which they hoped and counted.

Exposure to foreign currency and currency risk can bring additional profits, and not just losses. Enterprises find out ways to minimize or fully eliminate exposure to foreign currency in order to plan business operations and more reliably predict profits. Importers seek to minimize exposure to foreign currency for the same reasons. But, as in the case of exporter, importers prefer to know exactly how many they have to pay in their currency. There are various ways to eliminate exposure to foreign currency, implemented using banks.

In international trade, the exporter must invoice the buyer in foreign currency (for example, in the currency of the buyer's country), or the buyer must pay products in foreign currency (for example, in the currency of the exporter countries). It is also possible that the payment currency is the currency of the third country: for example, a firm in Ukraine can sell goods to the buyer in Australia and ask for them to pay them in US dollars. Therefore, one of the importer problems is the need to obtain a foreign currency to fulfill the payment, and the exporter may arise the problem of exchanging the received foreign currency on the currency of its country.

The cost of imported goods for the buyer or the cost of export goods for the seller can be increased or reduced due to changes in exchange rates. Therefore, the firm payments or receiving income in foreign currency has a potential "currency risk" due to adverse changes in exchange rates.

The temporary factor is that there may be a lot of time between submitting an application to a foreign supplier and receiving goods. When the goods are delivered to a large distance, the main part of the delay between the application and delivery is usually associated with the duration of the transport period. Delayes can also be caused by the need to prepare the appropriate documentation for transportation. Time and distance create credit risk for exporters. The exporter should usually provide a loan for a longer time than it would take if he sold the goods within his country. If there are a large number of foreign debtors, there is a need to obtain additional working capital for their financing.

Insufficient knowledge and understanding of the rules, customs and laws of the country of the importer or exporter leads to uncertainty or distrust between the buyer and the seller, which can be overcome only after long and successful business relationships. One of the ways to overcome difficulties associated with differences in customs and characters is to standardize international trade procedures.

Sovereign risk occurs when the sovereign government of the country:

• gets a loan from a foreign creditor;
• becomes a debtor of a foreign supplier;
• it gives a guarantee for a loan on behalf of the third party in his own country, but then either the government, or the third party refuses to repay the loan and declares immunity from prosecution. The lender or exporter will be powerless to recover the debt, since it will be prohibited to hold his requirement through court.

Country risk arises when the buyer does everything in his power to export his debt exporter, but when he needs to receive this foreign currency, the authorities of His mills either refuse to provide him with this currency or cannot do so.

Government regulations concerning import and exports may be a serious obstacle in international trade. There are such decisions and restrictions:

• decisions on currency regulation;
• export licensing;
• licensing imports;
• trade embargo;
• import quotas;
• government regulations relating to legislative standards of security and quality or specifications for all goods sold within this country, legislative standards for health and hygiene, especially for food products; patents and trademarks; packaging of goods and volume of information shown on packages;
• the documentation necessary for the custom clearing of imported goods can be very voluminous. Delays in customs clearing can be a significant factor in the general problem of delays in international trade;
• duties for imports or other taxes to pay for imported goods.

Decisions on currency regulation (i.e., according to the system of control over the inflow and outflow of foreign currency in the mill and from the country), usually refer to the extraordinary measures adopted by the Government of the country to protect their currency, although the details of these decrees may vary.

Thus, at the moment, world trading still meets many obstacles in its path. Although, in view of the general tendency to global integration, all sorts of trade and economic associations of states are being created to facilitate international trade.

Conclusion

Summing up, it should be noted that international trade not only leads to an increase in efficiency, but also allows countries to participate in the global economy, encouraging the possibility of foreign direct investment, which are funds investing in foreign companies and other assets.

Opening opportunities for specialization, international trade gives the potential for more efficient use of resources, as well as for the development of the country in the production and purchase of goods. Opponents of global trade argue that it may be ineffective for developing countries. Obviously, the global economy is in constant change, and depending on how it changes, countries should take certain measures to not affect their economic situation.

Despite the increasing integration of world markets, political, psychological and technical obstacles on the path of the movement of goods and services between the countries are still substantial. The elimination of these obstacles would lead to a very significant transformation of world economy, as well as national farms of all countries of the world.

In modern conditions, the active participation of the country in world trade is related to the receipt of significant advantages: it allows you to more effectively use the resources available in the country, access new high technologies is most fully and diverse to satisfy the needs of the domestic market.

International Trade - an important aspect of the life of world economy, an important contingent of currency and currency regulation and an important social guarantee of human relations.

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Abstract on the topic "International trade in goods and services" Updated: December 4, 2017 by the author: Scientific articles.ru.

26.1. Place and role of international trade in goods and services in the modern system of world-economic ties
26.2. Major trends and features of international trade
26.3. Foreign Policy in the Epoch of Globalization
26.4. Russia in international trade
Basic Terms and Definitions
Questions for self-control
Literature

According to internationally accepted definitions, in particular, UN, WTO, OECD, international trade is a transboundary exchange of goods and services, a set of foreign trade in all countries of the world. International statistics were built on this terminological base.
The basis of international trade is an international division of labor, which is manifested in specialization of individual countries, national sectors of economics and enterprises in the production of goods and services for the external market. There are a number of indicators characterizing the participation of the country in the international division of labor, the most important of which is "export quota", i.e. The ratio of the country's export value to the value of the GDP of this country.
The mechanism for the occurrence of material benefits of international division of labor was first disclosed in the last quarter of the XVIII - early XIX century. The classics of political economy A. Smith and D. Ricar-before and received the name of the theory of comparative production costs. For labor costs, subsequent researchers have added such factors manufactured as land, capital, technology, information, entrepreneurial abilities, etc.
According to the later neoclassical concept of Swedish scientists, E. Hekscher and B. Olin's export of goods (as a result of an excess of certain factors in the country) can be replaced by the transboundary movement of production factors (except Earth), and the remuneration obtained by the owner of the factor for its use is Price factor. Supporters of this theory were negatively related to restrictions that make it difficult for the intercountry movement of both goods and production factors, advocated freedom of foreign trade.
The classical theory of international trade was later developed and supplemented. Thus, the theory of technological gap (S. Linder et al.) It suggests that the development of trade between countries of the same hope, the factors of production is primarily due to the technical and technological innovations that allow producing goods with less costs.
According to the theory of the life cycle of the product (R. faithful, etc.), countries can specialize in the production of goods, but at different stages of their "maturity". This theory was later complemented by the concept of "innovation", the introduction of which in production not only increased the competitiveness of the goods, but also led to saving the use of resources.
The theory of international competitiveness of nations, or competitive advantages, M. Porter, which appeared at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries, was based on modern foreign trade policies in almost all countries. It combined the elements of the neoclassical theory and the theory of foreign trade activities of the enterprise. The competitiveness of the country, by porter, create competitive advantages of the enterprise, whose success on the world market depends on the correctly chosen strategy.
It should be noted that all these theories, starting with A. Smith's theory, served the interests of economically developed countries, assuming the maximum development of freedom of trade and its liberalization.
Modern neoliberalism, with the fundamental principle of "equal opportunities" and support for freedom of market forces with minimal participation of the state, until recently is the basis of the theory of globalization and international trade. At the same time, leading countries, especially the United States, declaring the holiness and universality of this principle, have repeatedly violated it, resorting to protectionism if the interests of certain sectors of the national economy directly or indirectly affected. The development of competitiveness of priority industries and promoting their products to the global market in these countries has always been occurring with the most active support of the state that uses the entire arsenal of economic and trade policy for this.
The events of recent years, especially in connection with the global financial crisis of 1997-1999, forced many countries, first of all developing, seriously revise their positions. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the concept of "equal opportunities" applicable to industrialized countries is not suitable for creating equal opportunities to participate in international trade in developing countries. Fair conditions are needed. At the WTO conference in Cancun (2003), developing countries for the first time consolidated acted under the group "G-22", i.e. The largest and most successful developing countries as opposed to the policy of leading developed powers.
Today, the theory and practices of the liberalization of international trade, including within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO), needs serious adjustment, in a differentiated approach with great attention to the interests of developing countries and countries with economies in transition.

26.1. Place and role of international trade in goods and services in the modern system of world-economic ties

International trade in goods and services is one of the most important and most dynamic factors of globalization of world economy and participating in it national economies. Moreover, today no country can count on success without actively participating in international trade.
It is advantageous to export to countries. So, in 1950-1990. The production of GDP in the world has increased 5 times (at constant prices), and trade exports are 11 times. When expanding the manufacturing industry during this period, it is 8 times its exports increased 20 times. Over the past decade of the past century, with an increase in GDP on the World Export of goods increased by more than 2 times. As a result, foreign trade quota, i.e. The dependence of the economy of all countries from foreign trade, calculated as the ratio of the cost of foreign trade turnover to the cost of GDP in the world, for 1990--2000. increased from 32 to 40% (Table 26.1).

The expansion of international trade in goods stimulates the exchange of services, the accelerated growth of which also affects socio-economic changes in countries ("post-industrial development") and scientific and technological progress in the world. In 2003, global exports of services amounted to about 1.8 trillion dollars. (against 155 billion dollars in 1975), or almost 20% of world trade in goods and services. At the same time, the level of protectionist restrictions in international trade in services is everywhere higher than in the trade in goods. The main participants of this exchange are practically the same countries as in the trade in goods, i.e. economically developed countries.
The commodity structure of world trade reflects the shifts occurring in the economy of the participating countries and in the process of globalization of economic life. The leading place in world exports occupies the production of the manufacturing industry, whose share in 2000 reached 75% (70% in 1990). From this, the share of machines, equipment and means of transport is more than 41% (36% decade ago), among which the most dynamic article is the office and telecommunication equipment - more than 15% (9%), while the sale of automotive products has stabilized at the level of 9% . The following in the value of the heading is the production of the extractive industry - 13% (14%), in which the main place occupies fuel. Value




The preservation of the leadership of developed countries in international trade is ensured primarily due to the export of high-tech products. Developed countries account for almost 3/4 world exports of this product, which in accordance with the amount in 2000 more than 1 trillion dollars.
It should be noted the difference in the nature of international trade in leading countries. The United States has a long-term trading liability, i.e. Exceeding imports of goods over exports reaching 0.5 billion dollars. and more. However, the balance of payments of this country comes down with the asset due to the proceeds from the export of capital and services. At the same time, the active balance of trade is characteristic of Germany and Japan.
Last decade, there is an increase in position in the international trade in new industrialized countries (NIS) from among those developing, mainly due to an increase in the exports of processed products, including high technologies. Over the past decade in the export of Eastern and Southeast Asian countries (Vyuva), the share of manufacturing products has increased from 50% to: / 3, while high-tech goods amounted to more than 30% of all exports. This was the result of a targeted policy of developing an ex-portoriented economy and broad participation in international production cooperation.
That is why in the export of such countries as Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, the share of high-tech products today has already reached 60% in the total cost of exports of processed goods. For Thailand, South Korea, Viwa countries, this indicator exceeds 30%, whereas on average for developing countries - 20%.
Many developing countries continue to seriously depend on the export of producing industry products (75% of the export of the Middle East) and agriculture (countries of Latin America and Africa).
However, among the developed states there are examples of high dependence on commodity exports, which is explained by the presence of natural competitive advantages (60% of the export of Norway - oil and gas, 60% of the export of New Zealand and 73 Iceland - agricultural goods).
From the countries of the Transition Economy, the greatest volumes of foreign trade operations fall on the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and Russia, although in general their share in international trade continues to remain insignificant (in 2003 - less than 4%).
The most modest position in the international trade system occupies the least developed countries to which 50 countries of the world belong, which accounts for only 0.6% of the world exports. The income gap of these countries compared to the Golden Billion countries is 1: 150, and their continued marginalization is fraught with hazards for the globalization process.
The largest commodity markets (production plus exchange) defining the nature of world trade are the market of machinery and transport equipment (with the volume of exports to 2.5 trillion dollars), the mineral fuel market (more than $ 400 billion), as well as the black market and non-ferrous metals (about $ 350 billion).
The specificity of the modern world market of machinery and equipment is that it largely determines the material content of the globalization process in modern literature, "Global Production). This phenomenon is based on the sustainable bonds of production cooperation on the basis of secondary and long-term contracts within the framework of intra-industry specialization. Here, in full MERS, the advantages of the international division of labor and the cross-country movements of production factors are manifested, including the movement of huge financial resources and investments, the use of advanced innovations, information technologies, original entrepreneurial decisions. It is in this area that makes an important element of the development of the entire world civilization, the industrialized countries of the "Golden Billion" are held their positions due to cross-domestic relations, the profitability of which is the constant concern for transnational corporations and transnational banks.
These processes were reflected in particular, in the rapid growth of the office of office and telecommunications equipment (in 1990-2000 - annually on average in 12%), which constitutes almost 40% of foreign supplies of machine-technical products (in 1990 - 25%). The largest suppliers of this equipment are the United States and Japan, although at the same time the United States is an even larger importer of this product.
The main vendors of cars in the world market are Germany (16% of the value of world exports in 2000), Japan (15%). USA (12%), Canada (11%), France (7%), and among RA feeding countries - Mexico (more than 5%) and South Korea (about 3%). The main importer (almost 30%) is the United States. In 2000, about 58 million cars were produced in the world, more than 40% of which were exported. In addition to the finished cars, a significant part of the products of this industry is exported and imported in the form of nodes and components for subsequent assembly. The incomparably large nomenclature of cooperation supply includes the aerospace industry.
The other largest commodity market in the world is the mineral fuel market, the resources of which are focused mainly in the Middle East (more than 65% of world explored oil reserves). The countries of the region provide over 50% of crude oil supplies to the global market, adjusting the production and export of oil using OPEC organization. Oil and petroleum products occupy 80% (at the cost) of world energy exports; At the same time, over the past two decades, the positions of natural gas intensified, mainly due to its greater ecology. The largest exporter of natural gas is Russia - 130 billion m3 in 2000. The main world importers of oil and petroleum products are US (26%), Western Europe (24%), South Kazakhstan countries (19%), Japan (more than 12%). The United States, Germany and Japan are the main buyers of natural gas - respectively 20, 15 and 14%.
The continuous expansion of international trade in manufacturing products is explained not only by the needs of scientific and technological progress, but also the high efficiency of this trafficking in the plan as fast commercialization, so positive influence on the economy of exporters.
Fuel and comma exports, as global experience shows, is subject to sharp changes in demand and prices, it is difficult to predict and depends on the oscillations of the market situation. An example of the instability of the fuel and commodity trade can be the dynamics of world oil prices, which only for the period of the 80-90s three times survived a sharp drop: in 1986 to the level of 1985 by more than 50%; 1988-1987 - IA 22% and 1998-1997 - Pa 34%.
The global reduction trend of raw materials is well illustrated by the movement of the trade conditions index showing the ratio of average export prices to the average import prices, i.e. The purchasing power of 100 units of exports expressed in import units. If this indicator for the country or group of countries is greater than 100, then the price ratio in their trade compared to the base period is favorable; If less, then, on the contrary, unfavorable. For developed countries, this index for all 90s and before (base --1990) was constantly positive within 105-106 points, and for developing - mostly suppliers of raw materials, alarmed within 95-100 points.
In international trade in services, as well as goods, the leading place is again owned by industrialized countries, primarily the EU countries. However, recently, the share of these countries in the trade trade has slightly decreased due to the expansion of services of services of TNCs in developing countries. The countries of Western Europe today account for more than 40% of exports and import services, in North America - more than 20%) and approximately as much as Asian countries.
The main service providers remain the United States and the United Kingdom (respectively, 16 and 7% of world exports in 2003), as well as France, Germany (6%). The largest importers are US (13%), Germany (10%), Japan (6%). Russia in 2003 accounted for about 0.9% of exports and 1.5% of the import of services in the world.
Although the UN Service Classifier contains over 500 positions and subproductions, and according to WTO classification - more than 160 types of services, in international statistics, three enlarged positions are most often allocated: transport services, tourist and other services, mainly the so-called "business".
Data on the structure of world exports of services are shown in Table. 26.3.


As follows from the table, over the past 30 years there have been indigenous changes in world trade in services. The share of transport services has significantly decreased as a result of expanding the sphere of tourist and especially other (business) services, reflecting a higher standard of living and the increase in the value of intangible activities.

Comparatively new, rapidly developing types of business services are related to business service - enterprises, banks, insurance companies, trading, as well as media. These services include, in particular, professional and managerial (consultations, accounting, audit); information and computer, including software, database; transmission of technologies and know-how; Personnel services; Operational - enterprise management, quality control, liquidation of production waste; banking and insurance; laboratory, market and forecast research; Advertising, sale, merchant; telecommunications and lease services; repair and maintenance of equipment; Design and construction of objects; Services in the development of cosmos for civilian purposes.
The globalization of this most important sphere of human activity and business has led to an expansion of attracting qualified specialists to further increase productivity, reduce costs, improve quality, more efficient resource use, reduce work time. All this allows the enterprise to increase the competitiveness of its products or services. The latter through the transmission of technologies, information, transboundary movement of personnel and by commercial presence (the creation of banks, for example), are increasingly related to direct foreign investments.
An actively growing sector of business services in the last decade has become e-trade over the Internet. The volume of world e-commerce amounted to 5-10 billion dollars in the mid-1990s, at the beginning of the century - 100-150 billion dollars. and about 1.5-2 trillion dollars. In 2003, every 12-18 months in the world there is a doubration of commercial transactions over the Internet, and their potential is estimated at 30% of the GDP of developed countries. Exceptionally great opportunities for e-commerce growth are trade and finance sectors. The advantages of this type of service are primarily in cost savings and transaction time.
Similarly, the development of intra-industry specialization and cooperation in the material sphere is unlimited, so unlimited by nature and the market of services. The importance of international trade in services is beyond the scope of this sector and is a dynamic component of globalization of the world economy.

26.2. Major trends and features of international trade

Analysis of the current state of international trade in goods and services makes it possible to allocate the main trends and features of its development both in quantitative and qualitatively.
1. It will continue to be predominant in comparison with the sectors of the material production and GDP of individual countries and the entire world economy. At the same time, trade in manufacturing products and high-tech, high-tech, will develop the most dynamically and steadily. In 2000, the overall growth index of the physical export of goods compared with 1990 amounted to 176 points, including finished products - 184, whereas for the goods of the mining industries, it was 149, and for agricultural goods - 145 points. During the same time, the overall production index in the world was only 122 points, including finished products - 125, agricultural products - 120 and extractive industries - 117 points. General GDP Index for the period 1990-2000. reached 122 points. For the period 1995-2003 The average annual growth rate of GDP was 2.5%, and commodity exports - more than 5%.
A similar picture is also observed in world trade in services representing the most dynamic sector of the world economy. The share of services in the global GDP in 2002 reached 64%, and in the GDP of industrialized countries - 70%. A further increase in the share of services in world trade is expected, the formation of the global market for services under the influence of the acceleration of the scientific and technical process and the liberalization of international economic relations.
2. Under the influence of the process of globalization and its main subjects - TNK and TNB, there will be further changes in the geographical directions of the flow of goods and services. An increase in the share of developing countries due to NIS and the increase in specific gravity in the volume of goods and services of Asian countries at the expense of China and new industrial countries ("Asian Dragons") is expected.
Some reduction in the specific gravity of developed countries in world trade, transferring transnational corporations of the "lower floors" of the modern production and part of sub supports to developing countries does not mean loss of the leading position of economically strong countries. This is evidenced by their leading role in the production and exchange of products of high-tech and further development of mutual trade, especially in the framework of intra-industry industrial specialization and cooperation. Currently, 1/4 of world commodity exports fall on the mutual trading of the three most powerful centers: Western Europe, North America and Southeast Asia, which only confirms the above.
3. Weight more growing influence on the development of world trade provide regional integration associations, connecting not only the flow of goods, but also services, capital, labor force into a single economic space. Today, about 2/3 of international trade is carried out on a preferential basis within the framework of regional trade agreements, which, according to the WTO Secretariat, there are more than 110. The main part of these agreements acts in the form of free trade zones, which means the liberalization of intraconsal trade and the freedom of its participants in relation to "Third countries."

The most advanced regional groups are the European Union as part of 25 countries, the only integration association, which has passed over half a century of existence, all stages of integration; North American Free Trade Zone Nafta (USA, Canada and Mexico), South American Market - Mercosur (4 countries) and Association of Southeast Asia - ASEAN (10 countries).
In 2000, an intraregional trade accounted for 61% of the entire EU exports, or (trillion dol.) 1.4 of the 2.3 total; 56% - naphtha, or 0.7 out of 1.2, respectively; ASEAN - 24%, or 0.1 and * 0.4, respectively; Merkosur -21%.
Removing barriers in intraregional trade, rapprochement of investment, tax and other legislation gives their participants all the advantages of large-scale production, direct access to raw materials and labor resources. As a result of the combination of financial and scientific and technical capabilities of participants, production costs are reduced, and products, including export, becomes more competitive.
It is known that one of the tasks of the EU participating countries was to create an association capable of equal to compete with the United States and Japan, to increase their participation in international trade.
4. The content of international trade is increasingly becoming "servicing" the needs of the "global production" in the framework of the TNC, and this process will continue further. Already, more than half of the world trade of finished products and about a third of all trade are carried out on the basis of long-term agreements and contracts of scientific and technical, industrial and sales cooperation. The rapid expansion of the supply of parts, nodes and components for participating cooperation of foreign enterprises has become a characteristic feature of the last decades.
The use of the TNC enterprises of developing countries in the production cooperation is beneficial not only by the corporations themselves, but provides the opportunity to develop the competitiveness and sustainability of their economies. The countries of transition economies are increasingly plugged to this process.
Working in general on globalization, the cooperation of enterprises within the framework of the TNC means simultaneously that certain segments of world markets actually become more closed, including competition from other participants, since the conditions of cooperation agreements and prices (transfers) are established primarily on the basis of interests Relevant TNK. Naturally, these segments of markets are difficult to international regulation and liberalization, including according to the WTO rules, which is one of the difficult problems in the work of this organization. That is why the further improvement of multilateral regulation of world trade is primarily in the interests of TNCs and the leading world powers, through the WTO system and the increase in opposition from the developing countries of the trade policy of "equal opportunities", which does not take into account their interests will become one of the main specific features of international trade In the foreseeable perspective.
5. International trade in goods and services is increasingly intertwined with the international movement of capital. Further libera
Trade Laying, Intensification of Capital Movement and the growing mobility of production factors enhance the tendency to weave
exports of goods and services with capital exports. Investments of exporter countries are increasingly used to promote foreign
Markets of goods and services, in particular, to create industries, sales and retail chains or commercial presence of service companies.
This practice is applied to bypassing customs or other protection of national markets.
For 1981-2000 The global exportation of capital increased by 7.7 times, i.e. 3 times faster than exporting goods. Direct foreign investments (FDI) are crucial at the same time, which currently account for almost a third of cross-border capital movements. These investments are also concentrated in developed countries - USA, Canada, EU countries. The distribution of FDI by industry reflects the tendency of the structural development of world production and international exchange. Over the decade of the 1990s, the share of the manufacturing industry on the accumulated FDI has practically not changed (42%), whereas in the service sector they have increased from 44 to 50%.
Foreign foreign investments are carried out in two basic forms: by creating new capacities and industries and by mergers and acquisitions. The first way means real investments, the creation of industries and jobs, as a rule, the influx of new technologies. Mergers and acquisitions of companies are used to access foreign assets, introducing into the market, diversify production and trading activities. In the structure of world FDI, the share of mergers and acquisitions reached its peak in 2000, reaching 90%, which equals 3.5% of global GDP against an average of 0.5% in the late 80s.
6. The driving force of expanding world flows of goods, services and investments is TNC, which today has more than 65 thousand.
and 850 thousand of their foreign branches. The Foreign TNC network accounts for about 1 / | 0 global GDP (in the early 80s - V30). Volume of sales
Foreign branches in 2001 reached 16 trillion dol. (2.5 trillion - in the early 80s), which is more than two times higher than the global export of goods and services.
Export of foreign branches exceeds 3.5 trillion dollars, and total number Busy - over 50 million people. Geographically 80% of Maternity TNCs were concentrated in developed countries, of which 60% in the West, Nau Europe.
Among the largest TNCs of the world in terms of assets are leading "General Electric" (USA - Electronics and Electrical Equipment), "General Motors" (USA - Automotive), Ford Motor Company (USA - Automotive), total assets of which exceed 1 trillion to
7. Over the past decades, competition has sharply aggravated competition, the consequence of the tightening of the requirements for the quality of goods supplied to export products. Traditional price competitor, manufacturers' rent is increasingly inferior to the orientation site for more complete satisfaction of the needs and expectations of the consumer. Change the very concept of "quality". It covers now not only the consumer, the properties of the goods and the requirements for their safety and environmentally friendly, but also the methods of organizing the entire production system, service and sales. International quality standards (ISO 9000 series) are increasingly complemented by environmental management standards (HCQ 14000), the introduction of which is considered by the international business of their organizations, such as the International Chamber of Commerce, to the most important element not only competitiveness, but also more social responsibility of the business to society.

26.3. Foreign Policy in the Epoch of Globalization

The production of goods, especially technically complex, is now increasingly distributed among countries with comparative advantages. An increasing number of goods and services becomes not just objects of international trade, but also a universal trading system, important ^. whose task is to coordinate measures to reduce customs administrative and technical barriers, coordination and unification of legal norms of foreign trade regulation in the participating countries.
A complete multi-level system between, national regulation is gradually formed, which is characterized by the coexistence of ^ national, transnational, regional and global form ^ the growing interdependence of national economies forcing the state. Persone to pursue such a foreign economic policy that teaches. Would not only have their own interests, but also the positions of partner countries ^ as well as the interests of transnational business capital.
An increasing weakening of barriers to the movement of goods, capital services - the essence of the modern liberalization policy. Despite the contradictory interests of the participants, the regulation of international trade is becoming increasingly ordered world-economic purposes. However, liberalization should not be understood simplified. On the self, the regulation of world commodities - the task is extremely complex, and contradictory.
Among the large number of international organizations of the UN system and beyond its most universal and influential on international trade, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is the succession of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established in 1947 and implemented a number of rounds of global negotiations. on liberalization of international trade. As a result, the level of import duties to industrial products has decreased 10 times, or up to 3-4%.
WTO, whose members are more than 150 states, regulates more than 9 / w global trade in goods and services. The merit of GATT-WTO was the generalization of legal norms and tools for state regulation of foreign trade of the overwhelming majority of the countries of the world, which was achieved through multilateral interstate agreements. The provisions of these agreements are mandatory for all WTO member countries. In this principal difference between Gatt 1994 from Gatt! 947 member countries are obliged to bring their legislation in full compliance with the norms of GATT 1994
Three components of modern national trade and political systems are distinguished:
Support on the rule defining specific
Executive, Law and Responsibilities of Economic Subjects
TOV in the field of foreign economic activity;
unification and harmonization of national regulation tools with principles, norms and WTO practices;
The integrated nature of the application of measures of state regulation and management of foreign trade, including:
Economic tools - Cameras, taxes, subsidies, etc.;
administrative measures - prohibitions and restrictions, licensing and quotation, "voluntary restrictions" of exports, etc.;
technical means (barriers) - technical norms, standards, methods of conformity, certification, sanitary and veterinary, environmental norms and health standards:
funds of currency and financial regulation - exchange rates, accounting banking, lending and guaranteeing export operations, etc.;
- Protection of national manufacturers from unfair (dishonest) foreign competition and promoting national manufacturers and exporters in increasing their competitiveness in the global market.
Traditionally, the main principles of international trade is the most favored nation regime. However, the increasing regionalization of trading flows and multiplying closed economic groups can minimize the action of the greatest fault regime for these groups.
In such conditions, and taking into account the growing liberalization, especially the areas of services and foreign investment, the national regime is of paramount importance, i.e. Ensuring an equal competitive environment in the market of Porter's country for foreign suppliers.
The Multilateral Regulation Mechanism of WTO consists of a complex of measures recorded in a number of multilateral agreements: the Customs Cost Agreement, the Anti-Dumping Code, the Agreement on Subsidies and Compensation Measures, the Kyoto Convention on Simplifying and Harmonization of Customs Procedures, Codex on Technical Barriers in trade, import licensing code, etc. These agreements have already created a fairly rigid system of customs and non-tariff regulation measures, replacing more than 2,000 bilateral countries in this area.
The organizational legal mechanism of the WTO consists of three parts: GATT in the editorial office of 1994, which accounts for 4/5 of all WTO documents; General Agreement on Commerce Services (GATS); Agreement on commercial aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS). The central place of the WTO in the system of regulating international trade became possible largely due to the effective impact on the entire trading system, including through the strengthening of control functions of the fulfillment by members of the WTO obligations. The WTO retained the decision-making mechanism in Gatt: formally by voting, but, in essence, through the consensus, which gives the right "main trading nations" to maintain control over decisions, despite the fact that 2/3 of the votes in this international organization belongs to developing countries.
In the legal design of the WTO, the position of these countries, which used in the "old" GATT with certain benefits, deteriorated, as these benefits or disappeared, or seriously weakened. That is why the directions of WTO activities for the coming years cause serious differences of its participants. Developing countries believe that the decisions of the last, Uruguay Round have not yet been fulfilled. In particular, the USA, EU, Japan continues to maintain high barriers to textiles import and extremely high protectionist protection of their agriculture. West countries, in turn, insist further expanding the scope of WTO.

26.4. Russia in international trade

The current position of Russia in international trade clearly dissenisles the current areas and tendencies of participation in the international division of the overwhelming majority of countries. Possessing unique natural resources, large production, scientific and personnel potential, Russia is still content with the situation of the country of fuel and commodity specialization. Up to 90% of its exports are energy, raw materials and semi-finished products, and the share in world trade does not exceed 1.5%.
High rates of the Russian export quota - 45% in 2000, based on the official exchange rate of the Bank of Russia, compared with 7-8% in Soviet times - a direct result of the loss of nearly half of the country's economy potential in the 90s, price increases and Impairment of the ruble after August 1998 At the same time, this quota is not an indicator of a diversified economy, but most likely, indicates an excessive dependence on the demand of the external market, whose conjuncture on these goods in the long term can change dramatically. The greatest export dependence is available in the extractive industry and industrial sectors: in the production of energy resources - 46% on oil, 33% of gas, and in metallurgy, wood processing, basic chemistry and production of mineral fertilizers, export quota reaches 70-80%.
IN last years It is raw material exports due to high prices in the world market, especially for oil, became the locomotive of the development of the entire national economy and its further fuel orientation. In 1996-2000 Exports increased by more than 22%, providing 6.5% of GDP growth and decisive contribution to overcoming the effects of the crisis of 1998.
In crisis conditions of the transition period of Russia, export receipts played the role of one of the few effective tools for stabilizing the domestic financial market, replenishing the budget, maintaining the ruble exchange rate and accumulation of sufficiently large currency reserves, so necessary to repay high external debt.
External Trade Data Russian Federation Led in Table. 26.4.


In 2003, the turnover of Russia for the first time reached a mark of 200. Mld. With unprecedented large asset of trade balance in 60 billion dollars. At the same time, in the structure of this turnover, over the past decade, no serious positive changes have happened. The main place in exporting with a tendency to further increase occupies the production of mining industries - 55% in 2002 against 45% in 1990, metals (about 19 and 16%, respectively), products of the chemical and forest processing industry (about 12 and 9%) , machinery, equipment and means of transport (9.5 and 18%), food and agricultural disease (2.6 and 2.1%).
Russian supplies Native products on the global market are 8-8.5 billion dollars., or 7-8% of the total Russian exports of goods and services. However, the main part of these supplies (6-7 billion dollars) falls on the so-called regime product - weapons, goods and services of the atomic and rocket-space industry.
In the import of the same years, the main article continues to remain vehicles, equipment and means of transport (respectively, 36 and 44%), food and agricultural (22.5 and 22.7%), products of the chemical industry (17 and 9%), textiles and Shoes (5 and 9%), as well as some metals (6 and 5%).
The restricted relatively high profitability of raw materials exports in recent years and the economic policy and interests of the leading industrial and financial groups give little hope for a large-scale overflow of income in the manufacturing sector of the Russian Federation. Moreover, large assets still continue to be abroad.
As is known, fuel and commodity specialization is unpromising, since actually means the passage of national wealth, seriously undermines the production and scientific and technical potential of the development of the nation and ultimately its international competitiveness. The change in the same export orientation is possible only with active state intervention, which seems to be extremely difficult.
The improvement of the international specialization of Russia would be possible in the following basic areas. First, it is a serious diversification of existing exports by increasing the degree of processing of products, expanding the nomenclature of the main product groups of exports, more active involvement in the foreign economic activity of new regions of the country. This is perhaps the least costly way.
Another way is the all-effective expansion of domestic high-tech exports, including products of electrical engineering, electronics, scientific instrument making, special equipment and weapons, goods and services of the atomic and airbrush industries. The potential opportunities for the external market for these industries provide the world-growing technological and production cooperation in the world. Difficulties on this path today are relatively low quality Domestic products, lack of access to the consumer market of many types of special equipment and services, violation of previously established ties between science and production, its mainly outdated technological base. Opportunities for financial support of these areas are in Russia in the form of a record high gold and foreign exchange reserve (about 100 billion dollars in mid-2004) and sufficiently large funds accumulated in the Stabilization Fund, mainly due to the extremely favorable situation on the global oil market.
In addition, the real path to the successful release of our enterprises in acutely competitive world markets in the field of the most dynamic sector of the global economy and international trade - manufacturing lies through a wide cooperation with advanced companies of industrialized countries.
The main trading and political problem for Russia today is to find acceptable conditions for accession to the WTO, which opens ways to the equal participation of our country in international trade. During the negotiations on the part of the most influential members of this organization, the so-called quadro, i.e. The United States, EU, Japan and Canada, to Russia, are presented with requirements that are not required for entering countries. Among them, the complete cancellation of imported duties on a wide range of goods, refusal to regulate domestic prices (tariffs) for energy and their increase to world, large-scale liberalization of the service sector, restriction of state support for agriculture and subsidies for agricultural exporters. These requirements are talking about the desire to take Russia on conditions other than the "standard", i.e. On the conditions that the WTO usually applies to countries with weak competitive positions.
It should be borne in mind that the degree of liberalization of Russian imports is already quite high. Thus, the average average rate of duties in Russia in 2001 amounted to 11.8% against 7.8% in 1993. For the EU, this indicator is 3.9 and 3.7%, respectively, US -4.0 and 5.6%. At the same time, it is known that a higher level of customs protection compared to Russian already has India, China, Vietnam, Romania, Bulgaria, Mexico, Brazil and a number of other countries that relatively recently members of the WTO.
The essence of the discussion in our country on the issue of participation in the WTO is reduced to the fact that it should not be an end in itself and cannot be achieved by any foam. The main benefit for the country, if it joins the WTO, is to "voluntary-forced" formation of a truly market, competitive environment, where all participants in foreign economic activity will have to comply with the world's rules installed in the world. As a result, it is gradually, a predictable and reliable organizational and legal basis for sustainable and confident economic growth in Russia will be created during a previously agreed transition period.

Basic Terms and Definitions

Basic shopping powers - economically highly developed countries, primarily the United States, Germany, Japan. France and the United Kingdom.
Index Conditions Trade - The ratio of average export prices to the average import prices, i.e. purchasing power of 100 units of exports expressed in import units.

Questions for self-control

Expand the essence of the concepts of "International Labor Separation"; "International Specialization and Cooperation", show their role in the development of world trade and global production.
What do the "comparative advantages" of the country's participation in world trade are manifested?
Call the main indicators characterizing the country's participation in international trade.
How does the interrelation of trade in goods and services manifest?
What goods and services determine the development of modern international trade?
What are the main directions and features of modern trade policy (bilateral and multilateral)?
What are the features of the application of the greatest beneficial benefit and national regime?
What is the specificity of Russia's participation in international trade, the peculiarities of its commodity export and import structure?
What is the difference between the WTO from other international)! Hoo economic organizations?
10. What are the conditions for the accession of Russia to the WTO?

Literature
Foreign commercial information bulletins (biki) for 2003-2004 M.: Vnikni.
Foreign Economic Bulletin. Monthly business journal for 2003-2004. M.: Wawi.
Dumulen I.I. World Trade organisation. M.: WawT, 2000.
Dumulen PL I. International trade of services. M.: Waw, 2001.
Dumulen I.I. Customs and tariff regulation (overseas experience) M.: WawT, 1998.
Oreshkin V.A. The foreign economic complex of Russia in the conditions of integration into the world economy. M.: Imemo, 2002.
Oreshkin V.L. Indicators of the development of the global economy, the economy of foreign countries and Russia, international trade and foreign trade in Russia. M: WawT, 2003.
Piskulov Yu.V., Seltsy V.L. World economy and trade: statistical directory. M., 1998.
Piskulov Yu.V., Churin N.F. Scientific and technical policy of leading countries of the world and its impact on international trade. M: WawT, 2004.

.

FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS

International Economic Relations and Foreign Economic Activities

Topic 4. International Economic Relations

4.1 International trade in goods and services

4.2 International production cooperation

4.3 International Exchange in Science and Technology

4.4 International Capital Movement

4.5 labor migration

4.6 International Monetary Credit Relations

International trade in goods and services

Under world market understand the scope of sustainable commodity and money relations between countries based on the international division of labor and the use of various factors of production; A combination of national markets of countries of the world, interconnected by mobile production factors.

The global market consists of the following elements (Fig. 4.1.):

· domestic market - this is a form of economic treatment at which everything intended for sale comes true within the country);

· national market - this is the market, part of which is focused on foreign buyers;

· international market - This is part of national markets, which is directly related to foreign markets.

Fig. 4.1 - structure of the global market

international trade - This is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade in all countries of the world.

International trade consists of two counter-streams of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by trade balance and trade turnover.

World economy - This is a combination of national economies, interrelated mobile factors of production and interacting on the basis of international division of labor

The international division of labor and its international cooperation laid the foundations for the occurrence of the global market, which developed on the basis of domestic markets, gradually overlooking the national borders.

Stages of the development of the global market:

1. And the stage of market formation - coincides with early Stage The commercial economy based on the division of labor, when there was the simplest form of the market - the domestic market (DR. Greater, China, Egypt, Babylon, Ethiopia, North Africa).

2. ІІ ETAP specialization of markets - Almost immediately after the emergence of the markets began to specialize (labor market, capital, retail, trade) and part of the market was already focused on a foreign buyer, i.e. There were national markets.

3. III Stage (XVI - Ser. XVIII century) - Manufactory created conditions for more large-scale production of goods, the markets began to expand to regional, state, interstate and global scales. There were international markets (Europe, the Middle and Far East, trade is bilateral in nature, great geographical discoveries allowed to export goods to newly open lands).

4. IV Stage - the emergence of the world market itself (I Paul. XIX - XX centuries) - there was a large factory-factory industry, the products of which was needed by the World Sales, so there was an interference of individual interframe trading centers into a single world market, which was formed to the Rubezh XIX - XX centuries.

The formation of a world economy took place as a result of the evolution of the domestic market (sales of hand in hand, then the emergence of intermediaries, formation of urban markets, market specialization, formation of regional markets and national markets oriented to the external buyer).

Fig. 4.2 - Formation of the World Market

For national economies, participation in international trade is presented in the form of foreign trade.

International trade - The trading activity of one country with others, which consists of paid export (exports) and paid importation (import). The foreign trade of all countries forms international trade.

Form of international trade It is a way to exist and express the content of international exchange.

Forms of international trade are:

Import / Remport;

Export / re-export;

International stock exchanges;

International auctions;

International trading;

International leasing.

Under international Exchange Understand the organizationally executed regularly functioning market, which sells and buy wholesale standard batch of goods of a certain (basic) variety.

Products that are an object of stock trading are called exchange. They are considered to conventionally combine into groups:

1) Energy raw materials - oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, fuel oil, propane;

2) Colored and precious metals - copper, aluminum, tin, nickel, lead, gold, silver, platinum, etc.;

3) grain - wheat, corn, oats, rye, barley, rice;

4) oil drying and products of their processing - linen and cotton seed, soybean, soybean oil, soy meal;

5) live animals and meat - cattle, live pigs, bacon;

6) Digestive goods - raw sugar, sugar refined, potatoes, cocoa beans, vegetable oils, spices, eggs, orange juice concentrate, peanuts;

7) Textile raw materials - cotton, natural and artificial silk, washing wool, jute, etc.

8) Industrial raw materials - rubber, lumber, plywood.

International commodity exchanges are conventionally divided into universal and specialized.

Within universal Commodity Birzh The trade in a wide commercial nomenclature is carried out. Thus, on the Chicago commodity exchange traded in cattle, live pigs, gold, sawn timber, securities, foreign currency. On the Tokyo Commodity Exchange, the transactions are made for gold, silver, platinum, rubber, cotton yarn, wool yarn.

Specialized commodity exchanges Focus on the trade of a specific group of goods. These include: London Metal Stock Exchange (Color Metal Group: Copper, Aluminum, Nickel, Tin, Lead, Zinc), New York Coffee, Sugar and Cocoa Stock Exchange, New York Cotton Exchange (Cotton, Orange Juice Concentrate), New York Economic Exchange "Komeks" (group of precious and non-ferrous metals: gold, silver, copper, aluminum), etc.

International auctions - A method of a market organization of international trade, in which both buyers and sellers compete with each other, providing the establishment of the most fair competitive prices. The auction products are traditionally protruding the fur, wool, tobacco, tea, some spices, antiques, drunk horses. The general condition is the lack of responsibility of the Seller for the quality of the goods exhibited for inspection. Famous international auctions are located in London, New York, Montreal Amsterdam, Calcutta, Colombo, St. Petersburg (according to export cannis), Moscow (equestrian auction).

There are upgrade and downward auctions.

The auction of buyers in which the goods generated for sale acquires the buyer who has given the greatest price is raising.

Lower auction- This is a sellers auction at which the goods exposed for sale leaves the seller who agrees to the smallest price. The downward auction is customary to use for charitable purposes, the starting price of the goods decreases until someone agrees to the minimum price of the announced lot.

Distinctive features of auction trade are that:

Trade at auction is carried out only with a real cash product;

Buyers and their representatives have the opportunity to first familiarize themselves with the auction of lots;

Unlike stock goods, the goods exhibited at auction are characterized by individuality and even uniqueness.

International trading There are a method of purchasing imported goods, placement of orders and issuing contracts, which involves attracting a certain, pre-established sentences from several suppliers or contractors and conclude a contract with those of them, the proposal of which is the most beneficial to international auger organizers.

The purpose of organizing international auctions is to increase the efficiency of production, product quality and reliability of constructed objects based on competition between organizations and residents - residents of different countries in engineering.

International EngineeringAs a field of activity related to the provision of engineering and consulting services to non-residents, includes:

1) Pre-project services - conducting survey work of the terrain, the development of a feasibility study of the project of new production, its environmental impact, marketing, etc.;

2) project services - preparation with all necessary for the construction and organization of the production of documentation, the development of technical assignments for the creation of new types of equipment, monitoring construction and installation work, determining links with suppliers of raw materials and components, etc.;

3) Post-proactive services - the choice of specific types of equipment and the organization of trading on its supply, installation, installation and commissioning of equipment, training personnel, launch of new production, carrying out technical control over its functioning.

Depending on the method ofmix informal, closed and open (public) international bidding.

Informal trading(contract contracts) are held if competitive bidding due to certain reasons (for example, if there are long-time and close ties between the customer and the contractor and the appropriate organization of only one and the participation of this contractor can significantly save due to the coherence of design, survey, construction and assembly and other works) are impractical or impossible.

To participation in closed international tradinga limited number of firms and consortia are involved (these are the most famous, authoritative and reliable suppliers and contractors), each participant invitations are expelled individually, and information about the trades conducted in the open print is not published. The organizers of closed trading themselves determine the range of possible participants, guided by their own selection criteria. Conducting closed trades requires the organizers of the preliminary study of the market opportunities and the results of the activities in this market of companies.

To participation in open (public) bida large number of participants have been attracted to the desire that exacerbates competition. Announcements on such a bidding are published in periodical press - in newspapers, specialized journals, bulletins, and are also sent to other states through trade missions or consulates for distribution among business circles.

A situation is possible when the organizers are difficult or simply impossible to determine the circle of participants, then trading and pass in two stages. At the first stage (open auction), all those who granted materials provided to the organizers, information confirming their high competence and experience of performing such orders, the level of products, customer reviews, etc. From their number at the second stage (closed trading) Organizers of such trading, often referred tenderChoose the most attractive participants.

To participate in the auction, you must provide a set of tender documentation, which usually includes a detailed description of the purchased equipment or the object being built (its power, performance, etc.), the main commercial conditions (delivery times, the terms of payment, the procedure for setting prices, etc.), the form of the tender supply, the conditions of arbitration, fines, warranties, equipment maintenance requirements; The possibility of submitting alternative proposals and other conditions necessary to participate in the auction.

All participants in the actions of the company file a tender, executed properly, under the painting to the Tender Committee, which compares the proposals (for which it may take from several weeks to several months), sums up and determines the winner.

When conducting vowels, the procedure for opening the packages is carried out in the presence of all participants in the auction and representatives of the media. When conducting sustained tradestender committees open packages at a closed meeting.

International Leasingit is a comprehensive economic and legal relationship between residents of different countries to acquire property and subsequent lease. This type of leasing includes the transactions carried out by the lessor and the lessee of one country, if at least one of the parties leads its activities and has capital together with a foreign firm.

Objects of international leasingmotor vehicles (buses, passenger cars and trucks); petroleum, gas and geological exploration; agricultural machinery and equipment; Machine-building equipment; medical equipment; Chemical equipment; Metallurgical equipment; woodworking equipment; Equipment for the food industry, etc.

If the lessor acts as a foreign party, then leasing is importedif the lessee is the overseas side, then leasing is exportif all participants are located in different countries, then leasing is transit.

There are a large number of lease classifications on various bases. So, in accordance with the signs of payback It is customary to allocate financial and operational lease.

financial leasingit is the relationship between partners, providing for the period of the agreement between them the payment of leasing payments, covering the full cost depreciation or its most part, additional costs and profit of the lessor.

Operational leasingit can be considered as leases in which the costs of the lessor associated with the acquisition and content of leased subjects are not covered by rental payments during one leasing agreement.

International Trade uses two main trading methods:

2. Indirect (indirect):

2.1. through intermediaries (trading and mediation companies, leasing companies),

2.2. Through organized commodity markets (commodity markets, international trading, international auctions, international exhibitions and fairs).

The choice of international trade method is determined by:

Production scale,

Features of products,

Features of regional consumption markets,

Participation of the state in the international division of labor,

Traditions trade.

Foreign trade policy. Pricing in international trade. Foreign trade balance.

The traditional and most developed form of MEO is foreign trade. According to some estimates, the share of trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of MEO.

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries arising from MRI, and expresses their mutual dependence. Modern MEO, characterized by the active development of world trade, make a lot of new and specific in the development of national economies.

Structural shifts occurring in the economy of various countries under the influence of HTR, the specialization and cooperation of industrial production strengthen the interaction of national farms. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. The international trading system comes to a quarter produced in the world of products annually. International trade, mediating the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, grows faster production. According to WTO studies, every 10% of world production growth accounts for 16% of the increase in global trade. Thereby creating more favorable conditions for its development. Foreign trade has become a powerful economic growth factor. At the same time, the dependence of countries from international commodity has significantly increased.

Under the term "foreign trade" means trading of any country with other countries, consisting of a paid importation (import) and paid export (exports) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are divided into commodity specialization to trade finished products, machines and equipment, raw materials, services, technologies. In recent decades, financial instruments (derivatives) are rapidly developing, derived from financial instruments treated in cash, for example, bonds or shares.

International trade appears as a cumulative trading volume of all countries of the world. However, the term "international trade" is used in a narrower value. It means, for example, the cumulative amount of foreign trade in industrialized countries, the cumulative amount of foreign trade in developing countries, the cumulative amount of foreign trade in the countries of any continent, the region, for example countries of Eastern Europe, and the like.

International trading is characterized by three main indicators: turnover (total), commodity structure and geographic structure.

The foreign trade turnover includes the amount of the cost of exports and imports of the country participating in international commodity exchange. There are values \u200b\u200band physical volumes of foreign trade.

The value is calculated for a certain period of time in the current (changing) prices of the corresponding years using current exchange rates.

The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices. On its basis, you can make the necessary comparisons, determine the real dynamics of foreign trade. The volume of international trade is calculated by summing up the exports of all countries.

From the second half of the XX century. World trade is developing in high rates. In the period from 1950 to 1994, the global trade turnover increased 14 times. According to Western specialists, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as the "golden age" in the development of international trade. It was during this period that the annual 7% increase in world exports in the 70s was achieved. It fell somewhat (up to 5%). In the late 80s. World exports demonstrated noticeable revival (up to 8.5% in 1988). After a temporary decline in the early 90s, in the second half of the 90s, international trade again demonstrates high sustainable rates (7 - 9%).

A rather stable, steady growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

· Stabilization of interstate relations in the context of the world,

· Development of MRI and internationalization of production and capital,

· HTR, promoting the update of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old,

· Active activities of international corporations in the global market,

· The emergence of a new commercial reality is the global market for standardized goods,

· Regulation of international trade through international trade agreements adopted within the framework of the GATT / WTO;

· Activities of international financial and economic organizations, such as IMF, supporting the relative stability of major world currencies, trade and payment balances of many countries,

· Stabilizing World Bank's activities regarding the global economy,

· Liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to the regime that cancels the abolition of quantitative import restrictions and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of "free economic zones";

· Development of trade and economic integration processes. Elimination of regional barriers, the formation of "general markets", free trade zones,

· Obtaining political independence by former colonial countries, allocating from their number of countries with an economy-oriented economy model.

The rapid growth of world trade in the mid-90s. It is also associated with a sharp increase in the import of the USA, Italy, Canada, Spain, the expansion of trade within the Group of OECD countries, as well as with the improvement of economic situation in developed countries (except Japan), in the Far East and Latin America.

If the elimination of trade barriers successfully continues, the capacity of the goods market will grow on average by 6% annually within ten coming years. It will be the highest with the 60s. Trade in the service sector will increase even higher rates, which a lot of informatics and communications contribute to a lot.

The structure of international trade is usually considered in terms of its geographical distribution (geographical structure) and commodity content (commodity structure).

The geographical structure of international trade is the distribution of trading flows between individual countries and their groups allocated either by territorial or organizationally.

The territorial geographical structure of trade usually summarizes data on international trade in countries belonging to one part of the world (Africa, Asia, Europe) or to the enlarged group of countries (industrial countries, developing countries) (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1.

Geographical structure of international trade (export) (in%)

The organizational geographical structure shows the distribution of international trade or between countries belonging to individual integration and other trade and political associations (European Union countries, CIS countries, ASEAN countries), or between countries allocated to a specific group in accordance with some analytical criterion ( Countries - oil exporters, countries - pure debtors).

The main volume of international trade is in developed countries, although their share has slightly decreased in the first half of the 90s due to the growth of the specific gravity of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The main increase in the specific gravity of developing countries has occurred at the expense of rapidly developing new industrial countries in Southeast Asia (Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong) and some countries of Latin America. The largest world exporters (in billion dollars) - USA (512), Germany (420), Japan (395), France (328). Among developing countries, the largest exporters are the following - Hong Kong (151), Singapore (96), Malaysia (58), Thailand (42). Among countries with transitional economies, the largest exporters are China (120), Russia - (63), Poland (17), Czech Republic (13), Hungary (11). In most cases, the largest exporters are the largest importers in the global market.

Data on the international trade in the world in general is very incomplete. Usually, the classification of individual goods in international trade uses either a harmonized system of description and coding of goods (GSOCT), or the standard UN International Classification (Smtk). The most significant trend is the growth of the specific grades of trade in manufacturing products, which, by the mid-90s, accounted for about ¾ of the value of world exports, and reduce the specific gravity of raw materials and food, occupying approximately ¼ (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2.

Commodity structure of international trade (in%)

Products	2003	2010
Agricultural products	14,6	12,0
Food	11,1	9,5
Agricultural raw materials	3,5	2,5
Products of mining industry	24,3	11,9
Ore, mineral raw materials and ferrous metals	3,8	3,1
Fuel	20,5	8,8
Industrial goods	57,3	73,3
Equipment and vehicles	28,8	37,8
Chemical goods	7,4	9,0
Semi-finished products	6,4	7,5
Textiles and clothing	4,9	6,9
Cast iron and steel	3,4	3,0
Other ready-made goods	6,3	9,2
Other goods	3,8	2,8

This trend is characteristic of both developed and developing countries and is a consequence of the introduction of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies. The most significant group of goods within the framework of manufacturing products is equipment and vehicles (up to half of the export of goods of this group), as well as other industrial products - chemical goods, black and non-ferrous metals, textiles. Within the framework of commodity and food products, the largest freight flows are food and drinks, mineral fuel and other raw materials, excluding fuel.

Pricing in international trade depends on a large number of factors:

· Place and time selling goods;

· Relationship between the seller and the buyer;

· Conditions of a commercial transaction;

· Market nature;

· Sources of pricing.

World prices called a special type of price in international trade - the prices of the most important (large, systematic and sustainable) export or import transactions committed on the usual commercial conditions in the main centers of international trade in well-known exporter firms and importers of relevant products.

The final cost of the goods is formed from:

· Manufacturer prices;

· The cost of translators services;

· The cost of legal support of the transaction;

· Production control costs (product inspection);

· Transportation costs;

· Payments amount to budget (customs payments, VAT, etc.);

· Commissions of intermediaries organizing import imports.

The foreign trade balance is the ratio of the value of the importation and export of products for a separate time interval. In the foreign trade balance, along with actually paid transactions, the transactions made on credit. With actually paid commodity transactions, the foreign trade balance is part of the balance of state balance. When carrying out transactions on credit, the foreign trade balance is included in the settlement balance of the country.
The foreign trade balance is formed in individual countries, and in groups of countries. The foreign trade balance is called active in case the cost of exported goods exceeds the cost of imported. In the case when the cost of imported goods exceeds the cost of goods exported, the foreign trade balance is passive.
The positive foreign trade balance indicates the demand of the goods of a particular country in the world markets or that the state does not consume all goods produced by it. The negative balance says that foreign goods are consumed in the country except its goods.

World market of goods and servicesit is a system of economic relations in the field of exchange, which is developing between the subjects (states, enterprises carrying out foreign economic activity, financial institutions, regional blocks, etc.) on the purchase and sale of goods and services, i.e. objects of the world market.

As a holistic system, the world market has developed by the end of the XIX century simultaneously with the completion of the formation of the world economy.

The global market of goods and services has its own characteristics. The main thing is that transactions for the sale of goods and services are committed by residents of various states; Goods and services, moving from the manufacturer to the consumer, crossed the boundaries of sovereign states. The latter, implementing its foreign economic (foreign trade) policies, with the help of various tools (customs duties, quantitative restrictions, the requirements of the compliance of goods with those or other standards, etc.) have a significant impact on commodity flows both from the point of view of geographic orientation and industry Accessories, intensity.

Regulation of the movement of goods in the world market is carried out not only at the level of individual states, but also on the line of interstate institutions - the World Trade Organization (WTO), the European Union, the North American Agreement on Free Trade, etc.

All Member States of the World Trade Organization (on August 24, 2012 there were 157, Russia became the 156th) make an obligation to fulfill 29 major agreements and legal instruments united by the term "multilateral trade agreements" covering over 90% of all world trade in goods and services.

Fundamental principles and WTO rules are:

· Providing the highest favored mode in trade on a non-discriminatory basis;

· Mutual provision of national regime goods and services of foreign origin;

· Trading regulation mainly by tariff methods;

· Refusal to use quantitative restrictions;

· Transparency of trade policy;

· Resolution of trade disputes through consultations and negotiations.

International Trade affects the state of the national economy, performing the following tasks :

1. Replenishing the missing elements of national production, which makes the "consumer basket" of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

2. Transformation of the natural-real structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

3. Effective function, i.e. The ability of external factors to influence the growth of national production efficiency, maximizing national income with a one-time reduction in the socially necessary costs of its production.

Foreign trade operations purchase goods are the most common and traditional for international trade.

Purchase transactions The goods are divided into the following:

· Export;

· Import;

· Re-export;

· Remount;

· Counter trade.

Export operations Ensure the sale and export of goods to the property for transferring them to the ownership of a foreign counterparty.

Importing operations - Purchase and import of foreign goods for the subsequent implementation of them in the domestic market of their country or consumption by an importer enterprise.

Reexport and re-report operations are a kind of export-import.

Re-exportation - This is the removal abroad for the previously imported goods, which has not been subjected to a re-exporting country to any processing. Such transactions are most often found when selling goods at auctions and commercial exchanges. They are used in the implementation of large projects with the participation of foreign firms, when the purchase of certain types of materials and equipment is carried out in third countries. At the same time, as a rule, the goods go to the country of implementation without the import of products to the country of re-export. Quite often, re-export operations are used to obtain profits due to the price difference for the same product in various markets. In this case, the product is also not produced in the re-exporting country.

A significant number of re-exercise operations is carried out on the territory of free economic zones. The goods imported into free economic zones are not subject to customs duties and are exempt when exporting for re-exports from any duties, fees and taxes on imports, from circulation or production. Customs duty is paid only in the case when the goods move across the customs border inside the country.

Remount operations It is intended to be imported from abroad previously exported domestic goods that were not subjected to processing there. These can be products that are not sold at auction returned from a consignment warehouse, rejected by the buyer, etc.

In recent decades, qualitatively developing new processes in the organization and technology of international trade operations continue to develop. One of these processes was a wide distribution of counter-trading.

Based on counter Trade There is a conclusion of counter-transactions that interconnect export and import operations. An indispensable condition for counter transactions is the obligation of the exporter to adopt its products as payment (for the full cost or part of it) certain goods of the buyer or organize their purchase by a third party.

There are the following forms of counter trading: barter, counter purchases, direct compensation.

Barter - It is natural, without the use of financial calculations, the exchange of a certain product on the other.

By conditions counter Procurement The seller supplies the buyer the goods on ordinary commercial conditions and at the same time assumes the obligation to buy a counter product in the amount of a certain percentage of the sum of the main contract. Consequently, the counter purchase provides for the conclusion of two legally independent, but in fact interrelated purchase and sale transactions. In this case, the Primary Contract includes an item on procurement and liability in the event of non-fulfillment of procurement.

Direct compensation It implies the mutual supply of goods based on one contract of sale or on the basis of the contract of sale and the agreements attached to it on counter or advance purchases. These transactions have a coherent mechanism of financial calculations in the presence of commodity and financial flows in each direction. Like barter transactions, they contain the obligation of the exporter to purchase goods from the importer. However, when compensated, unlike barter, supplies are paid independently of each other. At the same time, financial settlements between the parties can be carried out both by transferring foreign currency and the settlement of mutual clearing claims.

In practice, the main incentive of the conclusion of the majority of compensatory transactions is the desire to avoid transfer of foreign currency. For this, a clearing form of calculation is used, in which after the goods are sent by the exporter, its payment requirements are entered into a clearing account in the country of the importer, and then satisfied by the counter delivery.

In order to analyze the dynamics of international trade in goods, indicators of value and physical volume of foreign trade are used. Foreign trade value It is calculated for a certain period of time at the current prices of the analyzed years using current exchange rates. The actual volume of foreign trade It is calculated at constant prices and allows you to make the necessary comparisons and determine its real dynamics.

Along with international trade, goods are widely developed and trade services. International trade in goods and trade services are closely related. When delivered abroad of goods, there are more and more services, starting with the analysis of markets and ending with the transport of goods. Many types of services entering international turnover are included in the export and import of goods. At the same time, international trade in services has some features compared to traditional commodity trading.

The main difference is that services usually do not have an extractable form, although a number of services acquire it, for example: in the form of magnetic media for computer programs, various documentation printed on paper. However, the development and distribution of the Internet significantly reduces the need for the material shell for services.

Services in contrast to goods are made and consumed mainly at the same time and are not subject to storage. In this regard, it is often necessary for the presence of direct manufacturers of services or foreign consumers in the country of services.

The concept of "service" includes a complex of diverse types of human economic activity, which causes the existence of various options for services classifications.

International practice identified the following 12 sectors of the services, which, in turn, include 155 subsectors:

1. Commercial services;

2. Services of postal and communications;

3. Construction work and structures;

4. Trading services;

5. Education services;

6. Environmental protection services;

7. Services in the field of financial intermediation;

8. Services in the field of health and social field;

9. Tourism related services;

10. Services in organizing recreation, cultural and sports events;

11. Transport services;

12. Other services not included anywhere.

The system of national accounts services are divided into consumer (tourism, hotel services), social (education, medicine), industrial (engineering, consulting, financial and credit services), distribution (trade, transport, freight).

WTO focuses on the relationship between the manufacturer and the consumer of services, highlighting four types of transactions in international trade in services :

A. From the territory of one country to the territory of another country (cross-border delivery services). For example, shipment to another information data on telecommunication networks.

B. Consumption of services in the territory of another country (consumption abroad) involves the need to move the buyer (consumer) services to another country in order to obtain (consumption) there services there, for example, when the tourist goes to another country to relax.

B. Supply through commercial presence on the territory of another country (commercial presence) means the need to move to another country of production factors to provide services in the territory of this country. This means that a foreign manufacturer of services should invest in the country's economy, to create a legal entity there for the purpose of providing services. We are talking, for example, to create or participate in the creation of banks, financial or insurance companies in the territory of another country.

Delivery through the temporary presence of individuals on the territory of another country means that an individual moves to another country to provide services on its territory. An example is the services provided by a lawyer or consultant.

In terms of a high degree of saturation of the global market, goods and tightening on it. Competition is important, services provided by the business sector, such as engineering, consulting, franchising, etc. Large export potential have tourism, health, education, culture and art.

Briefly describe some of the types of services.

Engineering Represents engineering and consulting services for the creation of enterprises and objects.

The entire totality of engineering services can be divided into two groups: first, services related to the preparation of the production process and, secondly, services to ensure the normal course of the production process and product sales. The first group includes pre-project services (intelligence of fossils, market study, etc.), design (compilation of the master plan, project value assessment, etc.) and post-project services (supervision and inspection for work, staff training, etc. .). The second group includes services for the management and organization of the production process, inspection and testing of equipment, operation of the object, etc.

Consulting - This is the process of providing the client necessary to implement the professional activities of special knowledge, skills and experience.

Consulting services can be considered from the point of view of counseling and classify depending on management sections: general management, financial management, etc. Based on the counseling method, for example, expert and training counseling are allocated.

Services of consultants are intended for use by the management of companies, i.e. Persons who make decisions and related to the activities of the organization as a whole. Attracting the consultant, the client expects to receive help from him when developing or reorganizing business, expert opinions regarding some decisions or situations, finally, simply learn or adopt certain professional skills. In other words, consultants are invited to relieve uncertainty arising at different stages of the preparation, adoption and implementation of responsible decisions.

Franchising - Transmission system or sale of licenses for technology and trademark. This type of service is characterized by the fact that the franchisor transfers not only exceptional rights based on the license agreement, to engage in entrepreneurial activities, but also covers assistance in learning, marketing, management in exchange for financial compensation from the franchise rate. Franchising as a business suggests that, from one side, it is worth a firm, known in the market and having a high image, and on the other - a citizen, a small entrepreneur, a small company.

Rent - A form of management, in which, on the basis of the contract between the landlord and the tenant, the latter are transferred to the urgent compensated possession and use of various objects necessary for independent management.

Rental objects can be land and other movable property, machinery, equipment, diverse products of long-term use.

Wide distribution in international commercial practice has acquired long-term rental, named leasing.

For leasing operation, the following scheme is most typical. The landlord concludes a leased contract with the tenant and signs the contract of sale with the manufacturer of equipment. The manufacturer transmits the lease rental. The leasing company at its own expense or through the loan received in the bank pays off the manufacturer and repays a loan from rental payments.

There are two forms of leasing: operational and financial. Operational Leasing provides for the rental of equipment during the period, which is shorter than the depreciation period. In this case, machines and equipment are the subject of a number of consistently concluded short-term lease agreements and complete depreciation of equipment occurs as a result of its consistent use by several tenants.

Financial Leasing provides for the payment during the period of its action amounts covering the full cost of equipment, as well as the profit of the lessor. In this case, rental equipment cannot repeatedly act as lease agreements, since the lease term is usually established on the basis of the normal period of its efficient service. Such a lease surgery is largely reminded by a conventional foreign trade transaction, but on specific conditions similar to the forms of commodity lending.

Tourist services - a widespread activity in modern conditions. International tourism covers the category of persons traveling abroad and not dealing with paid activities.

Tourism can be classified on various features:

ü Purpose: Little-educational, sports and wellness, resort, amateur, festival, hunting, shopping tourism, religious, etc.;

ü Form of participation: individual, group, family;

ü Geography: intercontinental, international, regional, seasonality - an active tourist season, off-season, no-season.

A separate group of transactions for the purchase and sale of services presents operations for servicing turnover. These include operations:

ü on international freight transport;

ü for freight forwarding;

ü cargo insurance;

ü on storing goods;

ü on international calculations, etc.