Vegetable cover - an integral part of the natural environment, thanks to which
the metabolic process is carried out in nature, providing the possibility
the very existence of life. At the same time, vegetation cover is one of
the least protected landscape components, universally exposed
the effects of anthropogenic activity and suffering from it first.
Often the destruction of vegetation cover leads to the creation of conditions,
incompatible with the life of a person are formed situations defined as
ecological catastrophy.
Territory where the necessary scientifically based balance is preserved between
disturbed and impudent vegetation sites, have a chance to avoid
catastrophe. In addition, vegetation supplies humanity feed,
food, medicinal, wood resources, and also satisfies his scientific,
aesthetic and recreational needs. Caring for plant preservation
pokrov is one of the most important and at the same time one of the most difficult tasks.
In assessing the consequences of any kind of anthropogenic activity
should proceed from its direct and indirect role in the functioning of landscapes and
vital activity of man. The role of vegetation is extremely diverse and,
it can be said that all life on earth depends on vegetation because
green plants are the only in kind of organisms capable
produce an organic substance from inorganic, as well as certainly
oxygen required for life. The rest of the vegetation features are based on
this main is the energy function. Resource (including food and
stern) biostal, sanitary and recreation roles
directly associated with its energy function, and the landscape stabilizing,
water-security, recreational and other functions depend on it indirectly.
The violation of at least one of the functions leads to a destabilization of equilibrium as in
plant communities and in the landscape as a whole.
The fact is that vegetation is such an environment component,
which regulates the normal functions of all island, ranging from
gas composition of the atmosphere, surface drain mode and ending with yield
agricultural crops that revealed and what I wrote at one time by V.V.
Dokuchaev. Meanwhile, people peculiar to forget about life necessity
preservation of vegetation, because the connection of life is ground with vegetation
indired with many other facts. As a rule, see the final
the chain link is not easy, so often you have to hear dismissive
and ironic statements about some "flower and grass" (as well as "birds
and butterflies "), allegedly not comparable to the meaning with the interests of people in connection with
implementation of a particular object or project.
In fact, there is a circle of species of flora in each region that
subject to security due to their rarity or even uniqueness trends towards
disappearance. This species listed in red books of various levels, and
in the forecast of the consequences of this or that type of anthropogenic activity
it is necessary to identify such types, their classes in this area and, in
case need to adjust design solutions to prevent
the death of these species. But it is not only in the preservation of rare and endangered species.
Evaluation of the impact on vegetation also involves the analysis of possible
the effects of vegetation disorders, providing stable
functioning of all ecosystems of the region, including anthropoecosystems. In their
queue, vegetation depends on all natural factors, manifestation
which are associated with zonal-regional features. From this dependead
composition and phytocetic structure of vegetation, its biological
productivity, and, consequently, energy efficiency, its
dynamic trends. All these indicators are the basis of estimates.
the consequences of the impact on floral cover.
Impact on vegetation can be straight and indirect. TO
the number of direct influences includes direct destruction.
vegetation (cutting down of forests, squashing of turf, burning plots with
vegetation, flattering meadows, etc.). Indirect impacts are mediated
other factors that change anthropogenic activity: Change level
groundwater, change of microclimate, air pollution and soil
AT lately An increasingly substantial floral role plays
pollution, especially atmospheric. As it turned out, plants are often more
sensitive to chemical pollutionthan man, so MPC
pollutants in the air approved as sanitation
hygienic standards are not suitable for vegetation (especially for
evergreen trees and shrubs). Generally accepted PDCs for vegetation
not yet. There are private, such as regulations approved for the territory
Museum-manor "Clear Polyana". For the absence of others should be used by these
standards, making amendments to related circumstances (composition and
the existing state of vegetation, activity area).
No data on the maximum permissible concentrations of illustrative in soils for
no vegetation. There are only agricultural standards.
optimal application of fertilizers in the soil and content in it in it, and
it is also known that various plants have a selective ability to
absorption of individual elements: Some accumulate in a bolt quantity
(Lilac), other zinc (violet), etc. Not suffering at the same time, plants
can serve as a gear ratio of the distribution of stages that are on trophic
chains come into living organisms. Estimates of the impact of any kind
anthropogenic activity on vegetation covers is difficult because
there are no certain quantitative status quantities.
vegetation. Here are only expert assessments that allow you to get
comprehensive assessment of the state and resistance of vegetation, although in this
the case has to rely on the professionalism and experience of experts.
Among biotic indicators of evaluation of the state of ecosystems and geospheric
obolchk V.V. Vinogradov is invited to highlight spatial, dynamic
and thematic indicators, of which among the latter the greatest value
recognized for botanical.
Botanical (Geobotanic) criteria are not only sensitive to
environmental impairment, but also the most representatives ("physiognomic"),
best helping to trace the environmental zones by
sizes in space and in time stages of time. Botanical
indicators are very specific, because Different types of plants and different vegetable
communities in different geographical conditions have an unequal sensitivity
and resistance to disturbing effects and, therefore, the same
indicators for the qualifications of environmental conditions can significantly
varue for different landscapes. At the same time, signs of negative
changes at different levels: organisen (phytopathological changes),
population (deterioration of species composition and phytocenometric signs) and
ecosystem (Square in Landscape). An example of ranking status
ecosystems on botanical criteria is given in Table. 9 (averaged basic
indicators zoned for certain zonal conditions).
Table 9.
Botanical criteria for evaluating ecosystem disorders
| Estimated | Ecosystem status classes | |||
| INDICATORS | I - norm (H) | II - RISK (P) | III - crisis (K) | IV - disaster (b) |
| Deterioration of species composition and characteristic types of flora | Natural shift (sub-) of dominants | Remove the abundance of domination. Species | Change of dominance. Species on the secondary. | Reducing the abundance of secondary species |
| Damage to vegetation (for example, smoke plants) | No damage | Damage to the highest feelings. Species | Damage to mediumless feelings. species | Damage is slightly sensitive. Species |
| The relative area of \u200b\u200bthe indigenous (quasi-) message. (%) | More than 60. | 60-40 | 30-20 | Less than 10. |
| Biodiversity (reducing the Simpson variety index, in%) | less than 10. | 10-20 | 25-50 | Over 50. |
| Forestry (in% of zonal) | More than 80. | 70-60 | 50-30 | Less than 10. |
| The death of crops (% of the area) | less than 5. | 5-15 | 15-30 | Over 30 |
| Projective coating of pasture vegetation (in% of normal) | More than 80. | 70-60 | 50-20 | Less than 10. |
| Pasture vegetation productivity (in% potset.) | More than 80. | 70-60 | 20-10 | Less than 5. |
Biochemicalthe criteria for environmental disorders flora are based on
measurements of anomalies in the content of chemicals in plants. For
qualifications of critical environmental disorders are used
indicators Changes in the ratio of the content of toxic and biologically active
microelements in planting plants with trial sites and in plant feeds. AT
woods with a common toxicant, the impact of which on the plants leads to
irreversible physiological and metabolic disorders is dioxide
sulfur. The negative effect of heavy metals on plants is mainly due to their
penetration into cellular structures with soil solution.
In general, the aerotechnogenic path of the flow of pollutants into plants through them
assimilation authorities determines the degradation of forest biogeocenoses in conditions
impact of emissions, such as metallurgical enterprises. Accumulation
metals in the assimilating organs of the studied plants increase with increasing
the level of pollution of their growing growth is such a pattern characteristic
only for those metals that are prioritized for emissions
metallurgical enterprises. Other metals (non-industrial origin)
distributed on the territory evenly, and envious of accumulation from the zone
the defeat has not yet been found. The most informative biochemical indicators
the lesions of forest ecosystems are shown in Table. ten.
Table 10.
Biochemical criteria for evaluating the violation of ecosystems
| INDICATORS | Ecosystem status classes | |||
| (according to the content. Chem. Week in the dry mass of herbs (mg / kg) | I - norm (H) | II - RISK (P) | III - crisis (K) | IV - disaster (b) |
| Maximum allowable ratio C: N in plants | 12-8 | 8-6 | 6-4 | less than 4. |
| Maximum allowable CO-Holding PB, CD, HG, AS, SB | 1,1-1,5 | 2-4 | 5-10 | More than 10. |
| TL content, SE (for excess background) | less than 1.5 | 2-4 | 5-10 | More than 10. |
| Content Al, SN, BI, TE, WO, MN, GA, GE, IN, IT (for excess background) | 1,5-2 | 2-10 | 10-50 | |
| Cu content in plants (kg / kg) | 10-20 | 30-70 | 80-100 | Over 100. |
| Zn content (kg / kg) | 30-60 | 60-100 | 100-500 | |
| Content FE (mg / kg) | 50-100 | 100-200 | 100-500 | |
| MO content (mg / kg) | 2-3 | 3-10 | 10-50 | over 50. |
| CO content (mg / kg) | 0,3-1,0 | 1-5 | 5-50 |
(plant world) Regulation is recommended to consider
following.
1. Characteristics of forest and other vegetation in the zone of exposure to the object and
assessment of the state of prevailing plant communities.
2. Rare, endemic, listed in the Red Book Types of Plants, description of them
habitats.
3. Evaluation of the stability of plant communities to effect.
4. Forecast of changes in plant communities when implementing the project.
5. Functional importance of prevailing plant communities, forecast
changes in their functional significance when implementing the project.
6. Evaluation of the fire hazard of plant communities.
7. The consequences of predicted changes in vegetation for life and health
population, its economic activity.
8. Evaluation of recreational impact and forecast of changes in vegetation
possible changes in recreational loads (taking into account stability
plant communities to exposure).
9. Events for the preservation of plant communities:
Rare, endemic plants listed in the Red Book;
Productivity of plant communities;
Quality of plant products.
10. Events to ensure fire safety of forests and other
plant communities.
11. Evaluation of damage caused by vegetation due to violations and
pollution of the environmental environment (air, water, soil), logging
vegetation and redevelopment of territories.
12. The volume of environmental activities and assessment of the cost of measures
protection of forest and other vegetation, compensation activities, including
case of accidents.
Usually, speaking of the protection of the animal world, they mean the preservation of rare,
exotic animals, some of which are on the verge of full
disappearance, or on animals that have economic value. However problem
the conservation of the animal world is much wider. Animal world follows
view as the necessary functional part of the biosphere, where each of
systematic groups of animals, ranging from the lowest primitive and end
the highest mammals, performs their own role in the life of the biosphere.
Animal world is much more incompatible with anthropogenic activities, rather than
other landscape components, which creates great difficulties in preventing
negative effects of impact.
The area of \u200b\u200bexposure to the animal world is always wider than the area, directly
occupied by the designed object, as animal life
violates, among other things, the so-called "factor of anxiety",
including noise of construction and transport, the appearance of strangers and unusual
objects, night lighting, finally poaching and animal seals
and fish, marine beast, etc.
In assessing the effects of exposure to the animal world, much more significant
indirect causes of negative consequences: reduction of environmental niches,
forest reserves, trophic chains violation, reservoir pollution and much
other. Often negative consequences for the animal world as a result
indirect effects are much wider than from direct.
In the process of developing assessments of the impact on the fauna and the animal population
it is necessary to rely on systematic, spatial and ecological
the structure of the animal world, establishing interdependencies between these three
aspects of the analysis and revealing the possible negative consequences of their violations.
The basis for establishing the source space-ecological
patterns should be used by typical materials for data
zonal regional conditions for reserves (reserves, reserves, etc.),
since in the territories outside of specially protected natural objects
initial patterns are very violated and can only be installed
modern, as a rule, very depleted modifications. Comparison of those I.
others can give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe type of dynamics of the ecosystems of the region and adaptation
animals to a changing medium, on the basis of which it is already easier to predict
the effects of planned loads. In turn, if the estimated
activities will be carried out close enough to one of the protected
territories, it is necessary to assess the possible consequences for the reserved area
in order to prevent any changes to any of the objects or factors,
meaningful for this type of protection.
To assess the state of the animal world, as in the previous case, also
there are no clear and certain, incl. Quantitative criteria and norms in
connection with which the most often used method of expert assessments requiring
definitions of appropriate indicators.
Included in the thematic biotic, recommended V.V. Vinogradov
zoologicalcriteria and indicators of evaluation of the state of ecosystems, i.e.
violations in the animal world can be treated as at the centric levels
(species diversity, spatial and trophic structures, biomass and
productivity, energy) and population (spatial
structure, number and density, behavior, demographic and genetic
structure).
For zoological criteria, a number of process stages can be allocated.
environmental disorders. The risk area is allocated mainly by
environmental criteria for the initial stage of violation - synatropization,
loss of higher behavior, changing migration paths, tolerance reaction.
Subsequent stages of disorders are released additionally by request,
demographic and genetic criteria. The crisis zone is characterized
violation of the structure of populations, groups and flocks, narrowing the range of consequences and
habitat, disruption of the production cycle. Disaster zone is different
the disappearance of the part of the range or habitat, the mass death of age
groups, sharp increase in the number of synatropic and uncharacteristic species, intense
the growth of anthropozone and zoonal diseases. In view of a strong thickening
variability of zoological indicators (at least 25%), some of the cited
criteria are given in 5-10 years.
An example of ranking the state of the ecosystem for these criteria is given in Table. eleven.
Table 11.
Zoological criteria for evaluating the violation of ecosystems
Considering all the above, with substantiation and assessment of the impact on fauna
(vegetable world) Regulation of the GEE is recommended to consider
following.
1. Characteristics of the animal world in the zone of exposure to the object.
2. Estimation of the territory in the area of \u200b\u200bexposure to the object as the habitats of the main
animal groups (for fish - wintering pits, feces of feeding and spawning, etc.).
3. Forecast of changes in the animal world during the construction and operation of the facility.
4. Evaluation of the consequences of changes in the animal world as a result of the project implementation.
5. Events to reduce damage to water and terrestrial fauna and preservation
the main habitats of animals in the construction and operation of the facility.
6. Evaluation of damage to the animal world due to changing habitat when
implementation of project decisions. Compensation activities.
7. The volume of environmental protection measures and assessment of the value of compensatory
activities and measures to protect the animal world during normal operation
object, as well as in the event of accidents.
Evaluation and forecast of antropoecological aspects
The socio-economic situation in itself is not an environmental
factor. However, it creates these factors and simultaneously changes under the influence
changing environmental situation. In this regard, the impact assessment on
environment can not do without analyzing social and economic
the conditions of the life of the population. That is why the population and the economy in
all the variety of their functioning are included in the concept of the environment and
that is why the social and economic features of the area under consideration
or an object constitute an integral part of the EIA.
This principle is enshrined in the International Convention "On Impact Assessment
environment in a transboundary context ", where it is recorded:" Impact "
means any consequences of the planned environmental activities,
including people's health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water,
climate, landscape, historical monuments and other material objects or
relationship with these factors. It covers also consequences for
cultural heritage or socio-economic conditionsare
the result of changing these factors.
In the light of this definition it becomes clear that the dispute about priority
biocentric or anthropocentric approach to environmental protection issues
the medium is absolutely embossed, because it is almost the same thing only
you should not discard the second part of the specified definition. And in finite
you can say that the last disassemble of an EIA (or the last of
environmental factors under consideration) is anthropoecological
evaluation planned activity refracting to assess all other
factors in the anthropoecological aspect and including the assessment and forecast of possible
consequences of social, demographic, economic nature (increase
loads on the existing infrastructure, the relationship of the indigenous,
old-timer and fat people, the emergence of new jobs,
the need for local production products, etc.), i.e. all that can
attribute both to out- and to syccologically aspects of life
man.
Anthropoecological direction - one of the youngest in the structure
EIA, as well as in the science of ecology in general, because before everyone
anthropoecological problems were redistributed between many others.
sciences: medicine (and hygiene, in particular), anthropology, geography,
ethnography, demographics, etc.) and often considered independently of
One of the reasons for the unification of all these aspects into one input was
environmental protection issues in general and the need for pre-project
design EIA, in particular.
Unfortunately, the need for consideration in materials of the EIA
anthropoecological assessments are not enough to be realized in the field of management
environmental protection, which is traced in legislation and in
other regulatory documents. In particular, in the Law of the Russian Federation "On
environmental expertise "There are practically no requirements for
anthropoecological estimates of economic activity as an independent
section, although the need for its development is not doubtful.
Socio-economic characteristics of the state of the population that should
considered during the EIA, are classified by science - ecology
man as follows: demographic characteristics; indicators,
characterizing working conditions and life, recreation, food,
water consumption, reproduction and education of the population, its education and
maintaining a high level of health; Characteristics of natural and man-made
favor of the habitat of the population. At the same time, the estimates are divided into
subjective (given by working or living people themselves) and
professional (obtained using objective mingsa measurements
or official information sources).
To characterize the socio-ecological situation at the facility or territory
specialists in the field of human ecology allocate two groups of factors,
characterizing the anthropoecological situation - complex
(integral) Indicators: level of comfortnatural medium I.
degree of deterioritylife space.
Evaluation of the comfort of natural conditions is associated with the analysis of more than three dozen
the parameters of the natural environment, of which more than 10 refers to climatic
factors, and the rest characterize the presence of natural prerequisites (in
including relief, geological structure, water condition, vegetation and
animal Peace and many others considered in previous sections). For
mountainous areas, for example, it is additionally important to know the height of the object above the level
sea and degree of relief dismembrance.
The level of environmental detering also combines pretty
a large number of indicators of the most different plan. These include traditional
comprehensive pollution assessments Geospheres, calculated in the form of the amount
the ratios of real concentrations of ZV and their MPC, specific total indicators
PDV and PDS associated with the estimated area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, and a number of others.
In list demographic indicators, counted for
antropoecological estimates, most often given: the coefficient of general and
children's standardized mortality (per 1000 population) taking into account age
population structure, fertility coefficient linked to a common coefficient
natural increment, average life expectancy and life
population potential (the number of years of life, subject to the preservation of this
the level of transmitted mortality, in man-years), marriage indicators and
migration, indirectly indicating environmental disadvantaged in the region
placement object. There are more complex in calculating complex
demographic indicators: quality of life and quality of public health.
The most comprehensive regional indicators includes integral
social and Economic Development Indicatorincluding 15 basic
parameters estimated on a 10-point scale: Gross National Product (GNP)
per capita, per capita consumption, the level of industrialization,
the proportion of export-suitable products in total agricultural
products, Property Own Industrial Products, Development
infrastructure, level of education, the presence of a market public opinion,
the orientation of the population on Western standards of life, etc. Estimated
the region is ranked for each of these 15 parameters, then assigned points
there are also a total assessment as a result.
Unfortunately, among these parameters there are no "purely environmental"
type estimates level of ecological self-consciousness of the population, level
social and environmental tension other. To the number of others
ecologized socio-economic indicators include: recreational
the potential of the terrain and the degree of its use, danger (probability)
invasions, epizooty and attacks on people of representatives of the animal world,
comprehensive indicators of technogenic load and the degree of urbanization
territories, as well as a number of others.
Separate questions in this area are governed by the existing
regulatory and legal and regulatory documents.
Of the variety of ecosocyuctural indicators when conducting an EIA (in
next:
1. Assessment of the sanitary and epidemiological state of the territory.
2. Social living conditions of the population.
3. Assessment of the state of health of the population.
4. Migration of the population.
5. Forecast of possible changes in population, including indigenous.
6. Evaluation of the forecast changes in socio-economic living conditions
population, comfort of residence when implementing outlined activities.
7. Forecast assessment of the environmental consequences of the object operation (with
normal mode and accidents) for the life and health of the population (increase
mortality of the population, a change in life expectancy, appearance
professional and other specific diseases, increasing the total, infectious
morbidity of children and adults, etc.).
8. The forecast assessment of the impact of the planned activity on specially protected
objects (natural, recreational, cultural, cult, etc.).
9. Loss of the aesthetic value of the territory.
10. Evaluation of forecast changes in the natural environment for the existing
national use, including national.
11. Events to ensure the environmental safety of the population with
the normal functioning of the object and in emergency situations.
12. Activities for the regulation of social relations in the process of the outlined
economic activity, including the obligations of the Investor to improve
social living conditions of the population.
13. Comprehensive projected environmental risk assessment (for the population and
environmental) planned activities.
14. The volume of environmental protection measures and assessment of costs for
activities for the preservation of favorable living conditions and public health.
Security atmospheric air
The atmosphere is one of the elements of the environment that everywhere
affected by human activity. The consequences of this
impacts depend on many factors and manifest themselves in climate change and
chemical composition Atmosphere. These changes, indifferent for the most
atmospheric, are a significant factor of influence on the biotic component
environments, including per person.
The atmosphere, or an air environment, is estimated in two aspects.
1. Climate and its possible changes as under the influence of natural
reasons and under the influence of anthropogenic effects in general (macroclimate) and
this project in particular (microclimate). These estimates also suggest
forecast of the possible impact of climate change
projected species of anthropogenic activity.
2. Pollution atmospheres whose assessment is carried out by structural
scheme. First, pollution is assessed
atmosphere with one of the complex indicators: Pollution potential
atmospheric (PZA), the dissipating capacity of the atmosphere (RSA), etc. then
estimates of the existing level of atmospheric pollution in this region are carried out.
Conclusions and on climate-meteorological features, and on initial pollution
the atmospheres are based on, first of all, the regional Roshydromet data, in
lesser extent - on the data of the sanitary and epidemiological service and
special Analytical Inspections of Goscomecology, as well as
literary sources. And finally, on the basis of the estimates and data on
specific emissions into the atmosphere of the projected object are calculated
forecast Evaluation of the Pollution of the Atmosphere using special
computer programs ("Ecologist", "Garant", "Ether", etc.) that allow
fields of concentration fields and data on the loss of pollutants (SV)
on the underlying surface.
Criterion for evaluating the degree of pollution of the atmosphere. Maximum permissible
concentration (PDC) of pollutants. Measured or calculated
concentrations of ZV in the air are compared with MPC and thus pollution
the atmosphere is measured in values \u200b\u200b(shares) of the MPC.
It should not be confused by the concentration of SV in the atmosphere with their emissions into the atmosphere.
The concentration is a mass of a substance in a unit of volume (or even the masses), and
the release is a mass of a substance that entered a unit of time (i.e. "dose").
The emission cannot be the criterion of the atmosphere, as pollution
air depends not only on the value (mass) of emissions, but also from a number of others
factors (meteoparameters, height of the source of emissions, etc.).
Precognition of contamination of the atmosphere are used in other sections of the EIA
to predict the consequences of other factors from exposure
polluted atmosphere (pollution of the underlying surface, vegetation
vegetation, morbidity, etc.).
Assessment of the state of the atmosphere during environmental expertise is based
on the integral assessment of the air pollution of the territory under study,
to determine which the system of direct, indirect and indicator
criteria. An assessment of the quality of the atmosphere (above all the degree of its pollution)
quite well developed and based very large package of regulatory and
direct Documents using direct monitoring methods for measuring
the parameters of the medium, as well as indirect - the calculated methods and evaluation criteria.
Direct evaluation criteria. The main criteria for pollution
the air basin is the values \u200b\u200bof extremely permissible concentrations (MPC).
It should be borne in mind that the atmosphere occupies a special position in
ecosystem, being a medium transfer of man-made substances-pollutants and
the most variable and dynamic of all components of its abiotic
components. Therefore, to assess the degree of pollution of the atmosphere apply
differentiated assessment time Indicators: Maximum Metal PDKMR (for
short-term effects) and average daily PDKSS, as well as average annual PDKG (for
long exposure).
The degree of pollution of the atmosphere is estimated by multiplicity and frequency
pDC exceeding Taking into account the class of danger, as well as the summation
biological action of pollutants (SV). Air pollution level
substances of different classes of danger is determined by the "bringing" their concentrations,
normal on the MPC, to the concentrations of the substances of the 3rd hazard class.
Pollutants in the air pool by probability of their adverse
effects on the health of the population are divided into grade 4: 1st - Extremely
dangerous, 2nd - highly dangerous, 3rd - Dangerous and 4th - died -
few dangerous. Usually used the actual maximum one-time,
average daily and average annual MPC, comparing them with actual concentrations
SV in the atmosphere over the past few years, but not less than 2 years.
Another important criterion for assessing the total air pollution
(various substances on average annual concentrations) is the value
comprehensive Indicator (P)equal to the root square from the sum of squares
concentrations of substances of various classes of danger normed on MPC and
limited to concentrations of the substances of the 3rd hazard class.
The most common and informative index of air pollution is
Kiza is a comprehensive index of average annual pollution of the atmosphere. His
quantitative ranking of the state of the atmosphere is given in Table. one.
The above ranking of the atmosphere status classes is made in
compliance with the classification of pollution levels on a four-point scale,
the class "norm" corresponds to the level of air pollution below average
regiments of the country;
the class "risk" is equal to the average level;
class "crisis" - above average;
the class of "disasters" is significantly higher than the average level.
Kiza is usually used to compare the pollution of the atmosphere of various
sections of the territory under study (cities, districts, etc.) and for evaluation
temporary (long-term) tendency to change the state of pollution of the atmosphere.
Table 1
Criteria for estimating the condition of the pollution of the atmosphere on the complex index (kiza)
The resource potential of the atmosphere of territory is determined by its ability to
dispersion and elimination of impurities, associated with the actual level of pollution
and the magnitude of the MPC. An assessment of the impact capacity of the atmosphere is based on
such complex climatic and meteorological indicators as
potential of the Pollution of the Atmosphere (PZA) and air intake parameter
(PV). These characteristics determine the features of the formation of levels
contamination depending on the meteo conditions contributing to the accumulation and
establish impurities from the atmosphere.
PZ. - Complex characteristic of the repeatability of meteorological
conditions unfavorable to dissipate impurities in the air pool. In Russia
5 classes of the PZ, characteristic of urban conditions, depending on
repeatability of surface inversions and custody of the weak winds and duration
Air consumption parameter (PV) represents the volume of pure
air required to dilute the emissions of the SN to the level of the average permissible
concentration. This parameter is especially important when controlling the quality of air
environments in case of the establishment of collective mode users
responsibility (the principle of "bubble") at market relations. Based on this
parameters The amount of emissions is set for a whole region, and then
the enterprises in its territory are jointly found the most profitable
for them, the way to ensure this volume, incl. through trafficking rights to
pollution.
Evaluation of the resource potential of the atmosphere is carried out taking into account the hygienic
justifications of climate comfort territory, use opportunities
territory in recreational and residential purposes. An important source component
this assessment is a physiological and hygienic classification of weather (i.e.
combined weather-corrector such as temperature and air humidity, solar
radiation and other) of cold and warm years of the year.
As a criterion to assess the optimal placement of sources of pollution
the atmosphere and residential territories are used reserve
(deficit) of the diffuse properties of atmospheric air (BP).
The atmospheric air is customary to be considered as an elementary service in
chain of pollution of natural environments and objects. Soil and surface waters can
be an indirect indicator of its pollution, and in some cases, on the contrary
- Being sources of secondary contamination of the atmosphere. This determines
necessible In addition to assessing pollution directly by the air basin
take into account the possible consequences of the mutual influence of the atmosphere and adjacent environments and
obtaining integrated ("mixed" - indirectly-straight) status estimates
atmosphere.
Indirect evaluation indicators Pollution of the atmosphere is
the intensity of the receipt of atmospheric impurity as a result of dry deposition on
soil cover and water objects, as well as as a result of flushing it
atmospheric precipitation. The criterion for this assessment is the value of admissible and
critical loads expressed in density units with regard to
the time interval (duration) of their arrival.
Group of experts from the North-European countries recommended
critical loads For acid forest soils, surface and soil
water (taking into account the combination of chemical changes and biological effects for
these media):
for sulfur compounds 0.2-0.4 гskv.m year;
for nitrogen compounds 1-2 gnkv.m year.
The final stage of the integrated assessment of the state of the pollution of atmospheric
air is the analysis of trends in the dynamics of man-made processes and evaluation
possible negative consequences in the short and long-term aspect
(perspective) on local and regional levels When analyzing spatial
features and time dynamics of the effects of exposure to the pollution of the atmosphere
on the health of the population and the state of the ecosystems applies the method of mapping
(Recently - Building GIS) Using a set
cartographic materials characterizing natural conditions Region, including
the presence of specially protected (reserved, etc.) of territories.
According to L.I. Bottled, optimal component system (elements)
integral (complex) atmospheric status estimates must
turn on:
estimates of pollution levels from sanitary and hygienic positions (MPC);
estimates of the resource potential of the atmosphere (PZ and PV);
estimates of the degree of influence on certain environments (soil and vegetable and
snow cover, water);
trends and intensities (speeds) of processes of anthropogenic development
an expected natural system to identify short-term and
long-term effects of impact;
define the asked and temporary scale of possible negative
the consequences of anthropogenic effects.
Given all the above, with the substantiation and assessment of the impact on the atmosphere
1. Characteristics of the existing and predicted air pollution
air. The calculation and analysis of the expected pollution of atmospheric
air after entering the designed object into operation at the border of the SZZ, in
residential zone, on specially protected and other natural territories and objects,
located in the zone of influence of this object.
2. Meteorological characteristics and coefficients defining the conditions
dispersion harmful substances in atmospheric air.
3. Parameters of emission sources of pollutants, quantitative and
qualitative indicators of emissions of harmful substances into atmospheric air
established (normal) conditions of operation of the enterprise and the maximum
loading equipment.
4. Justification of data on emission data should be Contain a list
measures to prevent and reduce emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere and
evaluation of the conformity of the applied prolhesses, technological and
dusty equipment in advance.
5. Characteristics of possible salvo emissions.
6. List of pollutants and groups of substances with summing
harmful effect.
7. Proposals for establishing standards for extremely permissible emissions.
8. Additional measures to reduce pollutant emissions in
the atmosphere in order to achieve PDV standards and evaluation of their conformity
advanced scientific and technical level.
9. The rationale for the accepted SZZ sizes (including the wind roses).
10. List of possible accidents: in violation of the technological regime; for
natural disasters.
11. Analysis of the scale of possible accidents, measures to prevent
emergency situations and elimination of their consequences.
12. Evaluation of the effects of emergency contamination of atmospheric air for
man and OS.
13. Events on the regulation of emissions of harmful substances into atmospheric
air in periods of abnormally adverse meteorological conditions.
14. Organization of control over pollution of atmospheric air.
15. The volume of environmental measures and the assessment of the cost of capital investments
for compensation measures and measures to protect atmospheric air from
pollution, including accidents and adverse meteo conditions.
The protection of the resources of the animal and plant world is aimed at maintaining the optimal level of the number of economically valuable fishing animals and on the preservation of the entire species diversity of animals and plants. The solution to this task has become a big and relevant problem, since modern civilization is going on a wide front for wildlife, as a result of which irreversible changes in the natural environment occur. At the same time, the number of most wild vertebrate animals, as well as other animal species, began to decrease dramatically, and some species completely disappear. The same problem is also with respect to many plants. This process of depleting the fauna and flora under the influence of the negative impact of anthropogenic factors every year enhances and becomes global.
From early XVII century. More than 20 types of terrestrial vertebrates disappeared on the territory of Belarus. Among them are two extinct species on Earth: a forest bull - a tour and wild horse - Forest Tarpan. Also ceased to meet, Lan, Drop. River Mintoga and 11 species of fish disappeared in Belarusian rivers, including Beluga, Russian sturgeon, salmon. A number of species are exterminated by a person, others disappeared as a result of the GLA-ball reduction of the range or change of habitats. Belovezhsky bison is a kind of symbol of Belarus - preserved only in conditions of captivity, work on its naturalization was carried out.
As a result, at present, within the framework of the overall problem of the protection of the animal and plant world, it is quite an independent direction - the protection of rare and under threat of extinction of animals and plants.
Based on the materials of many years of research of Belarusian scientists, in order to protect and increase rare and endangered species of animals and plants, in 1979 the Red Book of the Belarusian SSR was established by a special decision of the Council of Ministers of the BSSR. In the first edition of the Red Book, 80 animal species and 85 plant species were included. Currently, the protection is subject to 182 species of animals, 180 species of plants, 17 - mushrooms and 17 types of lichens.
The problem of protection of rare species can be solved by preserving natural ecosystems and all of their components. The most effective measure of security is to preserve their habitats, which can be achieved, in particular, the organization of a network of specially protected natural territories, for example, reserves.
The document that accumulates all the information about the state of natural complexes of nature reserves is the "chronicle of nature", one of whose sections is "rare, disappearing, relic." Special attention is paid to identifying and clarifying plant habitats, especially rare and endangered species. This work is carried out by drawing up "point maps" of the arals of modern locations of these species.
One more thing. The preservation of rare and endangered species of animals and plants requires close international cooperation. Many rare types of animals, fish, migratory birds, as well as terrestrial vertebrates and farewell, migrating, may be in different countries of the world. Historically, the first document in the field of international animal protection of the animal world is considered to be the 1902 Paris Convention, devoted to the problem of protecting birds useful for agriculture. Since 1960, there has been a new, broader International Convention for the Protection of Birds within the European Region. In accordance with which the year-round protection of the endangered bird species is established, certain restrictions on their calf and shooting were introduced.
In 1971, the Convention on the protection of wetlands that have international importance was signed in Ramsar (Iran). As a rule, the nucleus of these land was the reserves. By the decision of the Council of Ministers of July 28, 1999, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection of the Republic of Belarus is defined as an authority responsible for fulfilling the requirements arising from this Convention. The scientific support of the Convention is entrusted to the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. In 1999 it was assumed to determine the wetlands on the territory of the republic that meet the requirements of this Convention and approve the list of objects to include in the list of wetlands of international importance.
In March 1973, the Convention was adopted in Washington international Trade Wild Fauna and Flora Flora, which entered into force on July 1, 1975, sometimes called the Washington Convention (CITES from the English Abbreviation). CITES in its nature is a global convention and currently more than 110 countries participate in it, including the Republic of Belarus. This convention is based on a list of rare and endangered aspects of animal and plants, trade in the participating parties, which can be damaged by their natural populations and, therefore, which must be monitored through agreed international procedures. The latter include mainly the issuance of permits established by countries - participants of the International Sample Convention, for which exports, import and re-export is carried out. The convention is applied to both the types and their parts and derivatives.
In accordance with the requirements of the Convention, each SITES Participant appoints the administrative and scientific authorities of CITES, which before issuing permits for exports, import and re-exercise are obliged to comply with certain procedures. The result of SITES is the establishment of effective control over the trade of rare and disappearing types of animals and plants.
In Belarus, the permission to move across the customs border of animal and plant species is issued by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection of the Republic of Belarus as an administrative body for CITES. The decisive moment of the development of international legal protection of the animal and the vegetation world was also the Convention on Biological Diversity, which was opened for signature on June 5, 1992 at the UN Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. The Republic of Belarus among more than 140 states of the world on June 5, 1992 signed, and on June 10, 1993 ratified this convention. After its ratification by 30 countries, the Convention in 1993 entered into force. The main objective of the Convention is the preservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and a joint acquisition on a fair and equitable basis of the benefits associated with the use of genetic resources. To fulfill international obligations in accordance with the Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus dated August 28, 1995, under the leadership of the Republican Commission on Biological Diversity Projects of the National Strategy and Action Plan for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity, approved by the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus on June 26 1997. Associated role in the protection of rare and endangered animal and plant species is played by agreement in the framework of the Interstate Environmental Council of the CIS countries, which are aimed at developing and carrying out agreed poly-ticks in the field of environmental and environmental protection. To those, first of all, an agreement on cooperation in the field of ecology and the protection of the Environmental Environment of the CIS member states, perfect on February 8, 1992, can be attributed.
LITERATURE:
1. On the protection and use of the animal world: the Law of the Republic of Belarus, September 19, 1996 // Vedamastsi Vyarkhuўnaga Saveta RESPBLIKI Belarus. 1996, №3, art.571.
2. The Convention on Biological Diversity: ratified by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus, June 10, 1993 // Vedamastsi Vyarkhuўnaga Saveta RESPBLIKI Belarus. 1993, №29.
3. The Convention on International Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora Flora, a collection of regulatory documents on environmental protection issues. - Minsk: Ecology Belnitz, 1997. Issue 16, Ch.І.
4. Environment and Natural Resources of the Republic of Belarus. Minsk, 1998.
Protection of plant world
As the destroying of the plant world, the quality of life of millions of people is reduced. Moreover, as a result of the destruction of vegetation, which served people as a source of energy for household needs and many other benefits, the very existence of humanity is predicting. For example, if the destruction of wet-rainforests will not be suspended, then from 10 to 20% of the animal and plant life of our planet will be destroyed.
Active organizers of studying rare and endemic species, including wild relatives of the main types of cultural plants, are designed to be Botanical gardens located in various climatic zones. It is necessary to relieve the threat of destroying these plants and make them accessible to wide practical use in breeding and crop production. The work of reserves created in different zones of reserves and reserves for the protection of botanical facilities, mainly flora of forests, meadows, steppes and deserts, including rare endemic plants representing undoubted interest for the knowledge of the evolutionary process are very important.
Due to the fact that today it is referred to the need to preserve the biosphere as a whole as the main condition of life on Earth, biosphere reserves play a special role. The concept of the biosphere reserve was adopted in 1971 by the UNESCO Man and Biosphere program. Biosphere reserves are a kind of higher form of protected areas, involving the creation of a unified international network of reserves who have a comprehensive appointment: the preservation of environmental and genetic diversity in nature, conducting scientific research, monitoring the state of the environment, environmental enlightenment.
The protective sections of natural vegetation cover, not only remains the flora, but also solves a whole complex of other important tasks: regulation of the water balance of the territory, the protection of soils from erosion, the protection of the animal world, the preservation of a health medium for a person.
The UN Conference on the Environment and Development of 1992 approved the principles for global consensus for the rational use, conservation and development of all types of forests. This document for the first time recognized the important role of non-flow forests in maintaining the global balance of carbon absorption and oxygen release. The main purpose of the principles is to facilitate the rational use, conservation and development of forests and the implementation of their multipurpose and complementary functions and types of use.
A statement on forest principles adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development is the first global forest agreement. It takes into account the needs of both forest protection as a surrounding and cultural environment and the use of trees and other forms of forest life for economic development purposes.
Forest principles enshrined in the statement include the following:
All countries should take part in the "landscaping of the world" by landing and preserving forests;
Countries have the right to use forests for the needs of their socio-economic development. Such use should be founded on national policies that meet the tasks of sustainable development;
forests should be used in such a way as to satisfy the social, economic, environmental, cultural and spiritual needs of modern and future generations;
the benefits of biotechnology products and genetic materials obtained at the expense of the forest should be divided into mutually agreed conditions with countries in which these forests are located;
Forests are environmentally acceptable sources of renewable energy and industrial raw materials. In developing countries, the use of wood as fuel is particularly important. These needs should be satisfied on the basis of the rational use of forests and planting new trees;
National programs must protect unique forests, including old forests, as well as forests that have cultural, spiritual, historical or religious value;
Countries are needed by planning forest management, based on environmental recommendations.
The purpose of the international agreement on tropical wood 1983 is to create an effective framework for cooperation and consultation between manufacturers and consumers of tropical wood, promoting the expansion and diversification of international trade in tropical wood, promoting and maintaining research and development for the purpose of rational use of forests and mastering wood stocks, and Also promoting the development of national policies aimed at long-term use and preservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources to maintain environmental balance in the respective regions.
According to the International Convention on the Protection of Plant 1951, each participant creates a formal organization for plants protection in order to:
inspection of cultivated areas and parties of plants in international trade on the presence or appearance of pests or plant diseases;
issuing certificates of phytosanitary state and origin of plants and plant products;
conducting research in the field of plant protection, etc.
In accordance with Art. The 1 Convention Contracting Parties undertake to take legislative, technical and administrative measures to ensure joint and effective actions aimed at preventing the introduction and spread of harmful organisms damaging plants and plant products, and in order to facilitate the adoption of appropriate measures aimed at combating with them.
The Convention participants carry out strict control over import and export of plants and plant products, applying when it is necessary, prohibitions, inspections and deliveries of supply.
Agreement on cooperation in the use of plant quarantine and their protection against pests and diseases of 1959 empower its participants to take the necessary measures against pests, weeds and diseases. They exchange information about pests and diseases of plants and combat them. States cooperate in applying uniform phytosanitary regulations on the import and export of plant materials from one country to another.
There is an organization of protection of plants in Europe and the Mediterranean, established in 1951, whose participants are 34 countries of Europe, Africa and Asia. Objectives of the organization: Implementation of international cooperation in preventing the spread of pests and diseases of plants and plant products. The main activity is carried out in the form of information sharing, unification of phytosanitary rules, registration of pesticides and their certification.
The first organizational task of protection of rare and endangered species is their inventory and accounting both on a global scale and in individual countries. Without it, it is impossible to proceed to theoretical development of the problem, nor practical recommendations By saving individual species. The task is not simple, and another 30-35 years ago, the first attempts were made to make up the regional and then world summaries of rare and endangered species of animals and birds. However, the information was or too concise and contained only a list of rare species, or, on the contrary, very cumbersome, since they included all the available data on biology and set out the historical picture of the reduction of their ranges.
IUCN united and headed in 1948 to work on the protection of the wildlife of state, scientific and public organizations of most countries of the world. Among his first decisions in 1949 was the creation of a standing commission for the survival of species (Eng. Species Survival Commission), or, as it was called in Russian-language literature, - a commission on rare species.
The tasks of the Commission included the study of the state of rare species of animals and plants under threat of disappearance, the development and preparation of projects of international and interethnic conventions and treaties, drawing up an inventory of such species and the development of relevant recommendations for their protection.
The official goal of the Commission put the creation of a global annotated list (inventory) of animals, which for one or another threatens disappearance. Sir Peter Scott (Piter Scott), Chairman of the Commission, suggested calling a list of red book (RED Data Book) to give it the caller and the capacious value, since the red color symbolizes the danger signal.
The first edition of the Red Book of IUCN published in 1963. It was a "pilot" edition with a small circulation. Two of his volumes included information about 211 types and subspecies of mammals and 312 species and subspecies of birds. The Red Book was sent on the list of prominent states and scientists. As the new information accumulates, as planned, additional sheets were sent to the recipients to replace outdated.
Gradually, the Red Book of IUCN was improved and replenished. The last, fourth "typical" edition, published in 1978-1980, includes 226 species and 79 subspecies of mammals, 181 views and 77 subspecies of birds, 77 species and 21 subspecies of reptiles, 35 species and 5 subspecies of amphibians, 168 species and 25 fish subspecies . Among them are 7 recovered species and subspecies of mammals, 4 - birds, 2 types of reptiles. Reducing the number of forms in the last edition of the Red Book occurred not only at the expense of successful protection, but also as a result of more accurate information obtained in recent years.
Work on the Red Book MSUP continues. This is a constant document, since animal habitat conditions change and all new and new species may be in a catastrophic position. At the same time, the efforts undertaken by a person give good fruits what her sheets are evidenced.
The Red Book of IUCN, like red sheets, is not a legal (legal) document, but is exclusively advisory. It covers the animal world on a global scale and contains guidance recommendations addressed to countries and governments in which the threatening situation has developed for animals.
Thus, relations in the field of the protection and use of animal and plant peace in order to ensure biological diversity, sustainable existence, the preservation of the wild animal and the protection of the animal and plant world are governed by both universal and bilateral agreements, in most of which our state participates.
International legal protection of the animal and plant world develops in the following main areas: protection of natural complexes, the protection of rare and endangered species of animals and plants and ensuring the rational use of natural resources.
Reducing the number and species diversity of vegetation and animals is one of the features of the global environmental crisis. Man cuts out the forests, collects berries, mushrooms, herbs, catches fish, extracts seafood, hunts on fur and other wild animals, birds, resulting in or destroyed by many natural biocenoses, a biological diversity of species has been significantly reduced.
According to the assessment of the UN Forest Department, the total forest area of \u200b\u200bthe world is less than 40 million km 2, i.e., during the existence of our civilization, 35% of forest area was destroyed, and more than half of this number - over the past 150 years. About 114 thousand km of 2 tropical forests are burned annually.
The deforestation of forests leads, firstly, to a decrease in biomass and the product potential of the biosphere, secondly, to the reduction of the global resource of photosynthesis. This leads to the weakening of the gas function of the biosphere and its ability to strictly adjust the solar energy assimilation and the composition of the atmosphere. In addition, the contribution of transpiration into the moisture circulation on land is reduced, which leads to a change in precipitation and drain modes and launches ground desertification mechanisms.
It has been established that gas production and dust, the gas absorption potential of plantings depends on their age, species composition, bonitet, completeness, states. For example, the calculated methods found that the absorption of CO 2 pine and linden stands varies within 5-15.8 t / ha per year, and the release of oxygen from 3 to 11.5 t / ha per year. In addition, in the forests of undergrings and a grassy tier can absorb, respectively, to 0.7 and 0.6 t / ha carbon dioxide and separated from 0.5 t / ha oxygen per year. In the green zones, the dustiness of the air may decrease to 40-50%. The multi-row linear plantings of trees and shrubs along the roads can reduce the level of air pollution in the transport areas from 4 to 70% and their effectiveness depends on the width, height and density of landing.
The forest also serves as a source and biological reservoir of most biocenoses of the Earth.
One of the most serious negative consequences of the rebirth of the biosphere to the technosphere is depletion natural ecosystems, reduction of biological diversity.
Biodiversity is not only a condition for the existence of an ecosphere, but should also be considered as an important resource of the technosphere. Due to the degradation of the natural environment, contamination, the destruction of biocenoses annually disappears 10-15 thousand biological species, mainly lower forms.
Events on the protection of plant and animal world are the following:
Forest protection from fires and fighting them;
Protection of plants from pests and diseases;
Foresting forestry;
Improving the efficiency of forest resources;
Protection of individual species of plants and animals;
Monitoring of species biodiversity;
Allocation of specially protected areas without economic activity or a significant limitation.
The most effective forms of protection of flora and fauna, as well as natural ecosystems, include the state system of specially protected natural territories.
Especially protected natural territories (PA) - Sushi or water surface areas, which, due to its environmental and other purposes, are completely or partially seized from economic use and for which a special regime is established.
The PAs can be attributed to: state natural reserves, including biosphere; National parks; Natural parks; state natural reserves; Monuments of nature; Dendrological parks and botanical gardens.
The protection and use of PAs is carried out on the basis of the Law of the Republic of Belarus "On Specially Protected Natural Territories".
As of 1.01. 2011 System of the PAs includes 1296 objects, including one reserve (Berezinsky Biosphere Reserve), 4 National Parks (Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Braslav Lakes, Narochansky and Pripyatsky), 85 reserves of republican importance, 353 local reserves, 306 monuments of Nature of the Republican and Republican and 547 - local significance. The total area of \u200b\u200bPAs in 2010 amounted to 1595.1 thousand hectares or 7.7% of the country's area. The priority category of PAs remains reserves of republican importance, their share accounts for 52.8% of the total area of \u200b\u200bPAs.
In the republic to preserve biodiversity there is a network of OPTs that have international significance. These include 8 Ramsar territories (Republican reserves "Olmansky swamps", "middle Pripyat", "Zwanan", "Spore", "Unwitting", "Kotra", "Yelnya", "Sterling"), on which studying and guarding swamp; Transboundary specially protected natural areas (Pribuzhskaya Polesie reserves and "Kotra") and biosphere reserves.
Thanks to the creation of all these PAs, unique landscapes are maintained in the republic and inhabiting their types of animals and plants. In total, Belarus is taken under protection 2,358 habitats and growth of 355 rare animal and plants. In addition, in 2004 it was taken under the protection of 28 new habitats of 20 species of animals and plants.
The scheme of rational deployment of the Republic of Mind and the National Strategy for the Development and Management of the System of Environmental Territories before January 1, 2015 was approved by the Resolutions of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus dated December 29, 2007 No. 1919 and 1920.
In accordance with the Decree of the Ministry of Environment on April 16, 2008 No. 38 in the republic there is a register of specially protected territories. The main purpose of these documents is the formation of a national environmental network. At the same time, the PAs are considered as its main elements. The first automated Database of the Republican Value based on the digital card M 1: 200,000 is also developed using GIS technologies (geo-information system).
Currently, as a result of a negative anthropogenic impact, both due to economic activity and poaching, the issue of the protection of animals and birds living in forest and agricultural land is particularly acute.
In connection with the intensification of agricultural production, many cars and mechanisms operating in the fields that are habitat of wild animals and birds appeared. The use of wide-graffitive high-performance equipment practically deprives inhabitants of fields of ability to escape and avoid death. Animals are drained and digest under the working bodies of technology or become easy prey of predators, losing shelter.
The use of a large number of powerful agricultural machines, as well as the chemicalization of crop production, became the main factor in the decline in the number of many types of hunting animals living on wildlife. When harrowing, cultivation, seference and harvesting of grain crops, a factor of concern is created on the fields, which usually leads to the death of game, their holes, logo and nests are destroyed. Many animals and birds die at night, when the light of the headlight makes them hide in the furrows. Even more their die during the sealing in the meadows and fields with feed herbs. It has been established that 33% of the twisters, 30-45% of the eggs with eggs, 25% of the korostels and 75% of the quails dies in Belarus. The main part of their dying in the repayment of dew, as well as at the dots of the central portion of the field.
Therefore, it is necessary to competently carry out work on the seference and cleaning of grain crops. First of all, it should be abandoned by mowing of herbs and cleaning grain "into the pen", but to conduct them "in overclocking", i.e., start these works from the center of the field to its periphery. Studies have shown that such a cleaning technology allows you to preserve up to 70% of animals and birds. When the grain harvesting is advisable, the method of an expanding projection is advisable, in which the cargo vehicles do not need to go around the chamber for collecting grain from the combine bunker, the driver for a bevelled field approaches from one combine to another. We carry out work from the edge of the field, and in the distance from it, animals and birds have the opportunity to go to a safe place.
The most effective method of protecting animals and birds is recognized as a comprehensive forest belt in the center, which ensure protection and feed, and also protect the soil from water and wind erosion. The forest belts make it possible to start cleaning from the edges of the field to the center around the perimeter. They are also advisable to organize feeders, enclosures, drinkers, canopies.
Chemicalization of agricultural production also largely influenced the vegetable and animal world. The uncontrolled use of pesticides, as well as an increase in their use for the extermination of pests of crops, cause serious damage as hunting fauna and the natural enemies of these pests. Reducing the number of natural enemies of agricultural pests leads to their mass reproduction.
Relatively new for the country is the problem of penetrating the territory of Belarus invasive species of plants and animals and arising with this negative consequences of an environmental, economic and social character. Monitoring data show that in recent decades, due to the economic activity of a person, a number of species, alien fauna and flora of the republic penetrate the territory of Belarus.
First of all, it is a mollusk Dreissan polymorphic (now this species is found more than 80% of the lakes of the republic). The rapid spread of the country's river basins received a foreign look of the Rotan-Rotan fish, which eats the caviar of other fish species, which causes serious economic damage.
No less damage to flora of the republic is invasive plant species. They are particularly easily penetrated on the cultivated land, where competition from the cultural flora is insignificant. Often, in these cases, alien species become malicious weeds, which leads to the loss of harvest and the need to develop new agrotechnical techniques and methods of combating them. Characteristic examples of such species are Galinzog Melko-Calcular, Meltolente Canadian and Highlander Weyrich. Separate from alien plant species such as Borshevik Sosnovsky, many types of poplars, ambrosia have pronounced allergenic properties. The mass spread of the Borshevik of the Sosnovsky, which displaces the most aboriginal species and possessing poisonous and allergic properties, is observed almost throughout Belarus.
In the territory of the republic, there were practically everywhere, cases of the negative effects of eudochymiries on the health of farm animals and humans, especially in the zones of open storage of nadogymicates or spray them.
It is known that many of the pesticides are able to accumulate in the organism of warm-blooded animals. Yadogymicates quickly apply to food chains, causing developmental anomalies or deaths, which seemingly could not be contacted with a poisoning substance.
The accumulation of the eradicates and products of their decay in the body causes human chronic liver diseases, urogen and reproductive systems, and also adversely affects the offspring.
In order to reduce the risk of negative effects of kernels on the biota, rules for their storage and application are developed. Thus, plant protection products should be made in limited areas, spraying to carry out in the windless time away from the nesting sections of birds or habitat with youngsters. The treated vegetation is most dangerous immediately after pollination, therefore, the birds should be scared from these sites, as well as patrol them within 48 hours. In addition, it is recommended to abandon the most toxic pesticides for animals.
Storage of eradicates should be organized in closed rooms in a special container. It is forbidden to place the warehouses of keriformicates in the water-protection zone of reservoirs and directly in the residential building area. Additional precautions should be observed during crossing or overflow of pesticides into special aggregates for pollination and spraying.
Special equipment platforms must be isolated from soil and reservoirs. Washed waters should be collected in special containers and reused.
The optimal variant of the struggle against agricultural pests is the use of biological methods. At the same time, pests of agricultural plants are destroyed or suppressed by natural enemies. For example, the failure is destroyed by God's cows, leaf-racing caterpillars - rider larvae, etc.
Recently, much attention is paid to microbiological methods of combating harmful insects and causative agents of diseases with antagonist organisms, which can be viruses, bacteria and mushrooms. However, there is a threat of loss of control over their reproduction. In addition, these organisms with the disappearance of the respective pest species can switch to other useful types of insects, plants and animals. The most problematic use of viruses, as they can unusually mutually mutate under the influence of external factors, which can lead to new unknown diseases.
An artificial increase in the number of small insectivore birds can be used as a biological method.
The most correctly applying combined methods for the protection of agricultural plants and animals, taking into account all existing factors.
1. Biological resources of rainforest
biological forest commercial fish
Tropical forest is a totality of land with a predominance of wood vegetation, located within the tropical climatic belt. The tropics are a wide strip of the globe, extending to the north and south from the equator for the borders characteristic of the high temperature of the air and soil, a large amount of moisture and light. All this forms a significant variety of biological resources of tropical forests, that is, soils, plant and animal world. In its modern form, tropical forests exist for at least 100 million years. They can be called the most ancient and most complex ecological systems of the biosphere.
Distinguish:
wet tropical and subtropical forests, also called jungle, hyiley (Forest Amazonia, Forests in Brazil and Peru, Equatorial African, Southeast Asia and Indian Subcontinent, Indonesia and Oceania);
fall Dry Tropical Forests (dry forests of South America - Bolivia, Argentina, Colombia Venezuela, North America - Mexico Guatemala, Caribbean, India and Southeast Asia, Indonesia);
evergreen tropical forests (forests with toll-pluled trees of South East Eurasia);
misty forests on mountain ridges.
The vegetation of the tropical forests are represented by 4-5 tiers of trees, there are no shrubs, herbs (with the exception of dry forests) and many plants of epiphytes and epiphils (deceived on the body of other plants), Lian. Trees are distinguished by wide trunks with protrusions, wide (more often evergreen) leaves, developed crown, unprotected kidneys, flowers and fruits, which are located right on the trunk. Also, it is also characterized by continuous vegetation. The leaves of the top tier of plants, as a rule, complex shape, transmitting light, and the lower - tiers, simple and wide, oblong, providing a good flow of water. Due to the fact that the trees of the rainforest, as producers consume many nutrients, soils are distinguished by relative poverty (little humus and nutrient minerals) and quickly turn into the desert after cutting down forests. Here are rich in iron and ore minerals of red soils. The lack of humus is caused by rapid rotting due to the abundance of bacteria, and the accumulation of iron occurs in the process of lacyalization (the formation of the rocky and smooth surface of the soil during the droughts).
The richest in the species composition are wet rainy rainforests, however, other types of forests as biomes (the aggregate of unique ecosystems of the region) have a huge biological potential, contribute to the development of populations of plants and animals, biological productivity, that is, the reproduction of organic substances, the cycle of substances and energy in nature, and therefore the preservation of life on earth.
Tropical forest is a source of such non-renewable resources like peat, oil, coal, ores of metals, renewable resources like wood, food (berries, mushrooms, etc.), medicinal plants. It contains industrial and hunting resources. But the most important thing is that tropical forests are considered "light" planets, due to their active photosynthesis on Earth, the optimal balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is maintained. And this despite the fact that they occupy only 6% sushi on the planet. No less successfully tropical forests accumulate and retain moisture, redistributing it between different climatic belts. The climators-incorporating, anti-erosion and water protection value of the tropical forests is very large.
Half of all types of animals and plants on Earth live in rainforest. A quarter of the drugs of the world is made of rainforest plants and 70% of anticancer drugs contain raw materials produced only in their ecosystems.
Wild ancestors of many cultivated plants grow in tropical forests, which allows scientific and agrarians to obtain genetic potential for agricultural plants.
Unfortunately, as a result of the economic activity of man, tropical forests disappear very quickly. Every year 125 thousand square meters will be cut down in the world. km of tropical forests. Over the past two hundred and summer, their area has decreased twice, and wet tropical forests were especially injured. After cutting down the forest is burned, and a large amount of carbon dioxide fall into the atmosphere. Due to the poverty of soils and the characteristics of climatic conditions, the economic use of land of former tropical forests is ineffective. All this leads to the fact that huge territories turn into deserts, many species of plants and animals die, and therefore, the biological resources of the Earth are depleted.
Scientists have not yet come to a single opinion as to whether the rapid cutting of tropical forests is a greenhouse effect, but they agree that this process has a negative impact on the climate of the entire planet. Consequently, the destruction of tropical forests leads to the dining of biological resources and in other regions of the world. If tropical forests disappear from the face of the earth, then we losses over 50% of all types of plants and animals and the existence of the biosphere, the human life will be at risk.
So, humanity should reconsider its attitude towards rainforest and do everything possible for their protection and preservation of biological diversity.
2. Foresting and water protection of forests
Forests, like unique ecosystems, perform a number of important functions with respect to other natural objects, including the protection function.
The struggling importance of forests is that they protect the soil, natural objects, incl. Agricultural land, roads and infrastructure elements from the destructive effects of weather factors. Namely: from weathered (erosion), drying, washing up the useful substances, desertification, sands movement. Thus, it is achieved:
improving the microclimate of the protected territories;
optimal moisture distribution, including rain, snowstand;
reduction of water and wind erosion;
reducing the area of \u200b\u200bbeams and ravines;
prevent snow and sandy drifts;
fencing animals.
The water protection value of forests is the ability of forest plantations to hold and regulate the exchange of moisture in the soil and air. With the help of forests and forest plantations, people manage to:
reduce evaporation moisture from soils and water bodies;
control the level of soil waters, the degree of salinization, making drainage more efficient;
protect the shores of water bodies from sand, overgrown with weed herbs.
It can be noted that the soil and water protection protection are closely related. On the protected areas, with the help of the unique properties of the forest, not only soils and reservoirs are protected, but also all plants and animals living in these biocenoses. Also is protected from harmful effects of human health. The prevention of accidents and a catastrophe of natural nature is carried out.
For protection, both natural forests and artificial forest plantations can be used. Such plantations are placed around cities, agricultural fields, hayfosses, pastures, recreational lands, water bodies, roads, important natural objects.
Among the natural forests in our country grow: deciduous (ever-green and deciduous), mixed and coniferous, swamp and mountain forests. Most of them are spontaneous-natural forests with a noticeable anthropogenic influence. Their struggling and water protection value is large, as they naturally protect the soil and reservoirs from harmful anthropogenic influence, Promotes the preservation of biological diversity, climate regulation and the protection of neighboring changed territories (settlements, agricultural land, water supply, recreational zones).
In the structure of forests, it is isolated: underground tier (rhizomes), a litter, a moss, herbal layer, undergrowth, and an ancient or a column of forest. Each of these structural components plays its protective role. The root system holds and enriches the soil, affects the level of groundwater, the soil power mode, the litter contributes to the formation of organic nutrients. Mokhovahova, herbal layer and undergrowth hold soil moisture. The ancient protects the territory from the wind, affects the climate through the processes of formation and distribution of organic substances, energy, moisture.
Artificial protective landscapes are divided into:
state protective forest strips;
foresting forest stripes on non-speaking lands (in essence, artificial forests);
protective plants on irrigated lands;
water-adjusting forest stripes on the slopes;
privilege and Barring Forest Strips;
settlement plantings;
forest plant around the reservoirs, along the shores and in the floodplains of rivers;
plantings on non-agriculture sands;
green forest arrays stripes around settlements.
Protective forest belts, as a rule, there are three types: dense - with a small distance between the trunks of trees and shrubs, the average - openwork and light - blurred. The choice of design depends on the weather-climatic conditions prevailing on this territory. Although the classification of forest belt on various features is very extensive. The first type of forest belt is found around cities, roads, farms, pastures, the second - around and along the forest-steppe irrigated fields, the third - in areas with a large amount of precipitation in the winter.
The most important protective value belongs to the forests of national natural parks, reserved forest areas, state protective forest belts, forests, which are scientific, historical monuments, nature monuments, the forests of sanitary protection of water sources and resorts (first and second zone), forests around water bodies, where valuable fishing fish will be spawn, anti-erosion forests, fruit, nut-fishing, underwear arrays. All of them are under special protection of forest legislation, their deforestation is categorically prohibited. They are also carefully protected from pollution.
The main use of the main use is allowed in protective forest belts around the roads, in tape boras, forest parks. But this deforestation is strictly regulated.
3. Protection and operation of commercial fish
The protection and operation of commercial fish in our country is regulated by the Federal Law of December 20, 2004 No. 166-FZ (ed. From 28.06.2014) "On the fisheries and preservation of water biological resources" (Chapter 3 "Fisheries").
It is legally enshrined the term industrial fisheries. Accordingly, the category of fishing fish - species of fish, subject to industrial catch.
In the world there are several thousand species of fish fisheries, in the Russian Federation - several hundred. Most of the fishing fishes are freshwater fish. But especially valuable are passing and semi-pass fish (living and in rivers and in the seas), for example, ceremony, seven, Sudak. Also great value is the fish of the northern seas - salmon, salmon, Sig, Keta, Gorbow. Fishing fish are not only a source of food, but also raw materials for light, pharmaceutical, industry, animal feed are made from fish.
Therefore, commercial fish need proper operation and protection, which includes:
reproduction of fish reserves and amelioration of water bodies;
establishing a limit on catch fishing fish;
limitation of catch fishing fish at certain periods;
restricting methods and tools catch fishing fish.
The alaroration of water bodies is aimed at creating optimal conditions for fish life, restoring their population, protection against the harmful effects of other natural factors, incl. Anthropogenic. For this purpose, the recess and purification of the bottom of the water bodies can be used, water level regulation, planting area around the reservoir, the fight against the windows in winter, the creation of spawning for fish and time reservoirs for young people. Biological amelioration is a settling in the reservoirs of new types of living organisms, such as special algae, microorganisms, and sometimes other fish, cleaning the bottom of the reservoir naturally.
In order for the stocks of fish fishers, the creation of spawning and breeding of fry fish, growing edible algae and others. Fish feed types. In some cases, Maleg, grown in artificial conditions, is produced in the reservoir, in others - it is grown to reproductive age for further reproduction and selection. It is especially important that Malek receive enough light and nutritious biomass so that clean water is constantly circulated in artificial water reservoirthat in the future affects the quality of the caviar (especially in sturgeon fish).
Such reservoirs are equipped at special enterprises for the reproduction of commercial fish. The fish, caught in habitats, enters the site of the preinstant maintenance of producers, then in the workshop, which contains a remotional uterine flock (manufacturers), from there, to the incubation workshop where spawning, fertilization and aging caviar occurs. Malek enters a special pool. Separately may contain individuals, individuals that require adaptation. Special requirements are put forward to the gentle catch and transportation of manufacturers. Also at such enterprises are grown live food for fish. The scientific approach allows not only to reproduce the population of fish, but also to carry out their selection, eliminate some fish development defects, improve their commercial qualities.
To determine the limit of catching fish in one or another reservoir or its site, an environmental impact assessment is carried out, which establishes the number, the structure of the population of commercial fish. The limit can be calculated in kilograms - for individuals and in tons of fish biomass - for legal entities (quotas for industrial catch). The limit assumes that the optimal number of individuals is withdrawn, which does not hurt the natural recovery of the population. The limit standards are calculated by scientific and fishing councils and are submitted for approval to a fisheries agency. In addition to the limit, commercial measurement parameters are also installed: length, size, fish weights that are subject to catch. Fish that has not achieved this size is called non-night.
The Federal Agency for Fisheries of the Russian Federation issues permits with the established rate of catch and commercial measure for individuals and legal entities. Violation of the exhaust rate is a water environmental offense and can be punished with administrative or criminal penalties. Abnormal catch of fishing fish, as well as fish catch in reservoirs, where it is prohibited, etc. Rough disorders of fishing fish are called poaching. Fish caught over the limit is subject to confiscation from poachers.
It is prohibited from extraction of commercial fish by using explosives, poisons, the formation of a zamor. For certain types of fishing fish, the dimensions of the allowed fishing guns are set, for example, networks. The tools of industrial log must be required. Sometimes due to the inconsistency of the characteristics of the fishing guns together with commercial fish, neotoral fish is caught. If the number of non-meter fish exceeds the norms, then the shaft of the log must be replaced or the catch is stopped at all.
The special legal regime of fish protection and water resources is established for environmental reservoirs. In general, the effectiveness of the protection and operation of commercial fish depends on the quality of the performance of water legislation and control by the fisherships.
4. International agreements aimed at monitoring and using biological resources
The main international document aimed at the control and preservation of biological resources is the "Agenda for the XXI Century", adopted by the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro on June 3-14, 1992. In particular, a special section was developed - chapter 15 "preservation of biological diversity". This chapter provides that states that ratifying the agenda must create national programs for the protection of biological resources, to produce research aimed at preserving biological diversity, organize rational together with other states the use of resources. To carry out all these and other measures are designed to government governments in cooperation with the UN, using financial instruments, the achievements of the HTR, human resources and the natural potential of the country.
Russia, as a UN member, is also called upon to fulfill the provisions of the agenda in accordance with international environmental law.
The second significant document is the worldwide charter of nature conservation. A number of other international agreements were also adopted:
Convention on the ban on military or any other hostile use of means of impact on the natural environment;
Environment Declaration, which is the information of the basic principles of international cooperation;
Convention on Biological Diversity;
Climate change convention;
Convention on Combating Desertification.
The Biological Diversity Convention provides that natural objects should be maintained or in natural ecosystems or in artificial conditions (laboratories, zoos, etc.). In the Russian Federation, the Convention was ratified in 1995. In 2009, it was supplemented by an international protocol for preserving genetic resources. Also in 2000, the Cartagena Protocol was signed on the protection of biological diversity from the negative consequences of the genetic modification of organisms.
Joining these and other international agreements, Russia ensures that it unifies its legislation and will fulfill the terms of agreements on the territory of its state, as well as to cooperate with other countries. In this case, cooperation is especially important, because for living organisms, especially for animals, is characterized by migration, and many ecosystems are the property of several peoples at once.
International documents on the resource branches are allocated, for example, regarding water resources. The first international agreement, which established certain obligations of states in the field of the protection of the World Ocean was the London Convention for the Prevention of Sea pollution by oil in 1954, with amendments of 1962.
All issues related to the problems of the World Ocean are engaged in the International Maritime Organization (IMO - ІNTERNATIONAL MARІTIME ORGANIZATION). This is an international intergovernmental organization that has the status of a specialized UN agency. It was founded in 1958 to facilitate international cooperation in the field of maritime transport and maritime trade. Functioning from 1959. The organization is a forum for the exchange of information between government on technical issues of international trade shipping, assists guaranteeing security to the sea and the prevention of sea pollution by sea courts. Within the limits of IMO, many conferences were conducted, which ended with the conclusion of conventions on different aspects of maritime shipping. The International Maritime Organization adopted a large number of recommendations, codes, guidelines, installations, resolutions, including on the preservation of biological diversity in the World Ocean.
IMO members are more than 190 states, including Russia. IMO solves issues related to the provision of cooperation in shipping and shipping, the development of recommendations and projects of the Conventions on Maritime and Environmental Law. The Almost authority of the IMO is the Assembly, which consists of all of its members and convenes every two years. The protection of the air environment is provided by the contract on the prohibition of tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space and under water in 1963, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
There are other specialized environmental agencies in the UN, as well as the UN Conference on Environment and Development, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, IUCN - the International Union of Nature Protection. They work closely with industrial, agricultural and food international organizations.
The biological diversity of plants and animals at the international level is governed by the Convention on International Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora's Threats of Destruction of 1973, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Wild Animal Species, the Convention on the Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora and Natural Habitat 1979. All of them provide that plants and animals, as part of biological diversity, can be used as objects of aesthetic and recreational complex with all people, and can be used limited, licensed such as hunting, fisheries, etc.
List of used literature
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