The 19th century as a cultural era begins in the calendar 18th century with the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1793. This was the first bourgeois revolution on a world scale (the previous bourgeois revolutions of the 17th century in Holland and England had limited, national significance). The French Revolution marks the final fall of feudalism and the triumph of the bourgeois system in Europe, and all aspects of life with which the bourgeoisie comes into contact tend to accelerate, intensify, begin to live according to the laws of the market.
The 19th century was an era of political upheavals that reshaped the map of Europe. In socio-political development, France was at the forefront of the historical process. The Napoleonic wars of 1796-1815, and the attempt to restore absolutism (1815-1830), and a series of subsequent revolutions (1830, 1848, 1871) should be considered as the consequences of the French Revolution.
The leading world power of the 19th century was England, where the early bourgeois revolution, urbanization and industrialization led to the rise of the British Empire and domination of the world market. Profound changes took place in the social structure of English society: the peasant class disappeared, there was a sharp polarization of the rich and the poor, accompanied by mass demonstrations of workers (1811-1812 - the movement of machine tool destroyers, Luddites; 1819 - the shooting of a demonstration of workers in St. Peter's field near Manchester , which went down in history as the "Battle of Peterloo"; the Chartist movement in 1830-1840). Under the pressure of these events, the ruling classes made certain concessions (two parliamentary reforms - 1832 and 1867, the reform of the education system - 1870).
Germany in the 19th century painfully and belatedly solved the problem of creating a single national state. Having met the new century in a state of feudal fragmentation, after the Napoleonic wars, Germany turned from a conglomerate of 380 dwarf states into a union of 37 independent states at first, and after the half-bourgeois revolution of 1848, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck headed for the creation of a united Germany "with iron and blood." The unified German state was proclaimed in 1871 and became the youngest and most aggressive of the bourgeois states of Western Europe.
During the 19th century, the United States of America explored the vast expanses of North America, and as the territory expanded, the industrial potential of the young American nation grew.
In 19th century literature two main directions - romanticism and realism... The romantic era begins in the nineties of the eighteenth century and covers the entire first half of the century. However, the basic elements of romantic culture were fully defined and revealed the potential for development by 1830. Romanticism is an art born of a brief historical moment of uncertainty, of the crisis that accompanied the transition from the feudal system to the capitalist system; when, by 1830, the outlines of capitalist society were determined, the art of realism came to replace romanticism. At first, the literature of realism was the literature of singles, and the term "realism" itself appeared only in the fifties of the 19th century. In the mass public consciousness, romanticism continued to remain modern art, in fact, it had already exhausted its possibilities, therefore, in literature after 1830, romanticism and realism interact in a complex manner, in different national literatures generating an infinite variety of phenomena that cannot be categorized unambiguously. In fact, romanticism did not die throughout the nineteenth century: a straight line leads from the romantics of the beginning of the century through late romanticism to the symbolism, decadence and neo-romanticism of the end of the century. Let us sequentially consider both literary and artistic systems of the 19th century using the examples of their most prominent authors and works.
XIX century - the century of addition of world literature when contacts between individual national literatures are accelerated and intensified. Thus, Russian literature of the 19th century had a keen interest in the works of Byron and Goethe, Heine and Hugo, Balzac and Dickens. Many of their images and motives are directly reflected in the Russian literary classics, therefore the choice of works for considering the problems of foreign literature of the XIX century is dictated here, firstly, the impossibility, within the framework of a short course, to give proper coverage of various situations in different national literatures and, secondly, the degree popularity and importance of individual authors for Russia.
Literature
- Foreign literature of the XIX century. Realism: Reader. M., 1990.
- Morua A. Prometheus, or the Life of Balzac. M., 1978.
- Reizov B.G. Stendal. Artistic creativity. L., 1978.
- Reizov B.G. Creativity of Flaubert. L., 1955.
- The mystery of Charles Dickens. M., 1990.
Read also other topics of the chapter "Literature of the XIX century".
The 19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of the great classics who influenced not only Russian, but also world culture. The main ideas inherent in the literature of this time are the growth of the human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.
Difference from the previous century
Giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was distinguished by a very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers glorified the dignity of man, tried to instill high moral and ethical ideals. And only at the end of the century, more daring and daring works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.
The reasons for the flourishing
In the process of working on homework or a report on the topic "General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century," a student may have a logical question: what caused these changes, why was literature able to reach such a high level of development? The reason for this was social events - this is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleonic troops, and the abolition of serfdom, and the public reprisal against the opposition. All this served to the fact that completely new stylistic devices began to be used in literature. Working on a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the "Golden Age".
Direction of literature
Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. She takes the significance of these questions far beyond the limits of her historical epoch. Preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian readers and foreign ones, gaining the fame of an influential force in the development of enlightenment.
Phenomenon of the era
If you need to give a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century briefly, it can be noted that a common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as "literary centrism." This means that literature has become a way of communicating ideas and opinions in political debates. It turned into a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining values and ideals.
It is impossible to say unequivocally whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too “preaching”, “instructive”. Indeed, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance to dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which the writers, poets and critics of that time lived. AI Herzen, when he found himself in emigration, described this phenomenon as follows: "For the people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and expression, literature remains almost the only outlet."
The role of literature in society
Practically the same thing was said by N. G. Chernyshevsky: "Our literature still concentrates the entire mental life of the people." Here it is worth paying attention to the word "bye". Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still admitted that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, “for now,” in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who assumed this function.
Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in the most difficult social conditions, despite persecution (it is worth remembering the same N.G. spiritual principle, adherence to principles, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Considering all this, one can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his letter to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: "The role of a writer in our country is, first of all, the role of a teacher."
Common and excellent in the representatives of the "Golden Age"
Preparing materials on the topic "General characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century", it should be said that all representatives of the "Golden Age" were different, their world was unique and peculiar. It is difficult to bring the writers of that time under any one general image. After all, every true artist (this word is understood as a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates his own world, guided by personal principles. For example, Leo Tolstoy's world is not like Dostoevsky's. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, the representatives of the "Golden Age" also have a common feature - it is responsibility to the reader, talent, a high idea of the role that literature plays in human life.
General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table
The "Golden Age" is the time of writers of completely different literary trends. To begin with, we will consider them in a pivot table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.
| genre | When and where did it arise | Types of works | Representatives | Main features |
Classicism | 17th century, France | Ode, tragedy, epic | G. R. Derzhavin ("Anacreotic Songs"), Khersakov ("Bakhariana", "Poet"). | National and historical themes prevail. The genre of odes is predominantly developed. There is a satirical focus |
| Sentimentalism | In the second half Xviii v. in Western Europe and Russia, most fully formed in England | Story, novel, elegy, memoirs, travel | N. M. Karamzin ("Poor Liza"), the early works of V. A. Zhukovsky ("Slavyanka", "Sea", "Evening") | Subjectivity in assessing world events. Feelings, experiences are put in the first place. Nature plays an important role. Protests are expressed against the depravity of high society. The cult of spiritual purity and morality. The rich inner world of the lower social strata is asserted. |
Romanticism | Late 18th - first half of the 19th century, Europe, America | Story, poem, novella, novel | A. Pushkin ("Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Boris Godunov", "Little Tragedies"), M. Yu. Lermontov ("Mtsyri", "The Demon"), F. I. Tyutchev ("Insomnia", "In the Country", "Spring"), K. N. Batyushkov. | The subjective prevails over the objective. Looking at reality through the “prism of the heart”. The tendency to reflect the unconscious and intuitive in a person. Gravitation towards science fiction, conventions of all kinds of norms. A penchant for the unusual and the sublime, a mixture of the high and the low, the comical and the tragic. The personality in the works of romanticism strives for absolute freedom, moral perfection, for the ideal in an imperfect world. |
| Realism | XIX in., France, England. | Story, novel, poem | Late A. S. Pushkin ("Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tales"), N. V. Gogol ("Dead Souls"), I. A. Goncharov, A. S. Griboyedov ("Woe from Wit"), F. M. Dostoevsky ("Poor People", "Crime and Punishment"), L. N. Tolstoy ("War and Peace", "Anna Karenina"), N. G. Chernyshevsky ("What is to be done?"), I. S . Turgenev ("Asya", "Rudin"), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("Poshekhonskie stories", "The Gogolevs"), N. A. Nekrasov ("Who lives well in Russia?"). | At the center of a literary work is objective reality. Realists seek to identify causal relationships in events. The principle of the typical is used: typical characters, circumstances, and a specific time are described. Usually realists turn to the problems of the present era. The ideal is reality itself. Increased attention to the social side of life. |
Russian literature of this era was a reflection of the leap that was made in the previous century. The "Golden Age" began mainly with the flowering of two currents - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism is gaining more and more power. This is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The sign will help the student to navigate the main trends and representatives of the "Golden Age". In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, the contradictions between the oppressed classes and the common people are growing. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry dies down somewhat. And the end of the era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.
Classicism
This direction is worth mentioning, giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the "Golden Age", primarily refers to its beginning. This term, translated from Latin, means "exemplary" and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This trend arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with an absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic themes, strict adherence to the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a specific model. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. It is they who illuminate the most important problems for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, “high” genres were opposed to “low” ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.
Sentimentalism
Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. The voice of the narrator plays an important role in it. This direction, as indicated in the table, is distinguished by increased attention to a person's experiences, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature, a special place among the works of sentimentalism is occupied by "Poor Liza" by Karamzin.
Remarkable are the words of the writer who can characterize this direction: "And peasant women know how to love." Many have argued that the common man, commoner and peasant, is morally superior in many ways to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the heroes.
Romanticism
This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature in the "Golden Age". For more than a century and a half, there have been disputes about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition to this trend. The representatives of this trend themselves emphasized the originality of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in every country romanticism acquires its own features. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism fought for social ideals, but they did it in different ways.
Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of a complete resolution of all contradictions. Many romantics in their works are dominated by the mood of the fight against evil, protest against the injustice reigning in the world. Also, romantics tend to turn to mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, a serious influence is given to the inner world of a person.
Realism
The purpose of this direction is a truthful description of the surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the basis of a tense political situation. Writers are beginning to turn to social problems, to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is everyday life, customs, events from the life of ordinary people from the lower classes.
1. GLOBAL IMPORTANCE OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XIX CENTURY
By the end of the 19th century, the liberation movement in Russia had become so powerful that it turned the country into the vanguard of the revolutionary movement in Europe (F. Engels).
This also determined the role of Russian literature in the spiritual life of mankind. His world significance as an artist, - wrote V.I. Of course, speaking about the worldwide role of the first Russian revolution, Lenin had in mind not only the events of 1905, but also the entire stage in the historical life of Russia that was gradually preparing the revolution (1861-1904). In Tolstoy's deep connections with this stage, Lenin sees the historical basis of the influence of his work on the artistic development of mankind.
Revealing the features of the national identity of the Russian liberation movement, V.I. The long and undivided rule of the autocracy, Lenin wrote, has accumulated an unprecedented, perhaps in history, amount of revolutionary energy among the people ...
This revolutionary energy inspired fiction, gave rise to its originality: genuine nationality and citizenship, those high democratic and humanistic ideals that captivated readers around the world. The liberation movement, as you have seen, drew into the orbit of its influence writers who were not only directly connected with it, but also distant from it. The great sea of the people, agitated to the very depths (Lenin), is the lifeblood of the great fiction of the 19th century.
This source of life was also nourished by Russian criticism, above all revolutionary-democratic criticism. In it, V.I.
In an article known to you, Lev Tolstoy, as a mirror of the Russian revolution, VI Lenin wrote: And if we have a really great artist, then at least some of the essential aspects of the revolution he had to reflect in his works. This means that a great artist cannot ignore the main thing with which his country lives, which forms the basis of the foundations of the life of the people. Lenin calls the work of Tolstoy a mirror of the Russian revolution, although he did not accept much in the revolution. But precisely because his consciousness was chained to a whole historical period of Russian life, during which the revolution gradually accumulated its strength, Tolstoy was able to pose so many great questions in his works, he managed to rise to such artistic power that his works took one of the first places. in world fiction. And then V.I.Lenin with pride for Russia, for its literature concludes: The epoch of preparation for the revolution in one of the countries crushed by serf-owners, came out, thanks to the ingenious coverage of Tolstoy, as a step forward in the artistic development of all mankind. These words of V. I. Lenin can be attributed to other great Russian writers.
They sensitively listened to the historical life of the people, reflecting in their work the dramatic conflicts that led the country to revolution, posed those problems that were directly or indirectly connected with the fate of the liberation movement, with the future of Russia. Due to the global importance of the processes taking place in the country, Russian literature has expressed not only national historical aspirations, but also worldwide, universal. Everything that exists under the dome of the sky turned out to be accessible to her, as the English critic wrote about Tolstoy. The word of Russian writers awakened the thought and conscience of readers all over the world, gave rise to the desire to remake life on the basis of reason and justice.
^ THE PERSONALITY OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE (PEOPLE, PATRIOTISM, REALISM, HUMANISM).
Reflecting on the role of literature in the fate of mankind, the great proletarian writer M. Gorky argued that no Western literature arose with such strength and speed, in such a powerful, dazzling brilliance of talent, as Russian literature, no one in Europe created such great world recognized books, no one has created such wondrous beauties under such indescribably difficult conditions as Russian writers. And the rapid development of Russian literature, and its exceptionally high ideological and artistic level, and its world influence - all this, as you know, became possible thanks to its connections with the liberation movement, its active participation in this movement.
In an atmosphere of blatant social oppression, literature should have become and really has become the focus of liberation, civic ideas. Once again, recall the well-known works of Russian classics in your memory: Woe from Wit, the lyrics of Pushkin and Lermontov, Dead Souls, Fathers and Sons, What to do? other. For all their differences, they have absorbed the advanced ideas of the time. Drawing strength from the liberation movement, the great Russian writers, as you have seen, themselves had a tremendous impact on its development, on the life of society as a whole. In our mental movement, - said Chernyshevsky of Russian literature, - it plays a more significant role than French, German, English in the mental movement of our peoples, and it has more responsibilities than any other literature ... The poet and the fiction writer are irreplaceable in our country ... The writers themselves were aware of this. Hence - that deep sense of responsibility before the people, before Russia, which was characteristic of them: it was in our country that the type of writer developed - a citizen, a fighter, a man of unyielding, often hard-won convictions, high moral principles.
The best Russian writers deliberately took the path of serving society, seeing this as the highest purpose of art. It is no coincidence that the theme of poet and poetry runs through all Russian literature. You will remember numerous poems on this topic (Ryleeva, Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov). Chekhov splendidly expressed the idea of the high purpose of art, of the responsibility of the writer. For him, a true writer is a person who is obliged, contracted by the consciousness of his duty and conscience.
When Russian literature gained worldwide recognition, foreign readers acutely felt its originality and unsurpassed strength. She conquered them with her bold invasion of life, her intense search for truth, her heroes, full of lofty goals, always dissatisfied with themselves. I was struck by the sense of responsibility for the future of their country and humanity, which never for a minute left neither Andrei Bolkonsky, nor Pierre, nor Raskolnikov, nor Prince Myshkin. Russian writers, said one Turkish critic, demand a lot from people, they do not agree that people put their own interests and their selfishness in the foreground.
Advanced Russian literature has always lived on the most important, burning problems of the century.
Sore questions, damn questions, great questions - this is how those social, philosophical, moral problems raised by the best writers of the past have been characterized for decades.
You could see that, beginning with Radishchev and ending with Chekhov, Russian writers of the 19th century spoke with merciless frankness about the moral degeneration of the ruling classes, about the arbitrariness and impunity of some and the lack of rights of others, about social inequality, about material and spiritual enslavement of man. Remember such works as Dead Souls, Crime and Punishment, the tales of Shchedrin, Who lives well in Russia, Resurrection. Their authors approached the solution of the most acute problems of our time from the standpoint of genuine humanism, from the standpoint of the interests of the people. You know what hatred for the oppressors, for tyranny, for the perpetrators of social disasters and personal human tragedies, the best Russian writers harbored.
Whatever aspects of life they touch, from the pages of their creations you can always hear: who is to blame? What to do? These questions sounded in Eugene Onegin and in the Hero of our time, in Oblomov and in the Thunderstorm, in Crime and Punishment, in Chekhov's stories and drama.
Revealing the role of the environment and historical conditions in the formation of a person, the writers at the same time tried to understand whether a person can withstand the impact of the circumstances of life around him. Is he free to choose the path of life or are circumstances to blame for everything? Ultimately, is a person responsible for what happens in the world around him, or not? All of these questions are extremely complex, and writers have painfully sought answers to them. In this regard, think again about Eugene Onegin, the Hero of our time, about the novel What is to be done ?, about Ionych. You probably remember the words of Bazarov: Every person must educate himself ... As for the time - why should I depend on him? Better yet, it depends on me.
Who is to blame? What to do? - these questions excited the consciousness and prompted Russian and foreign readers to take active action. The writers themselves could find different solutions, sometimes even erroneous, in the search for these solutions they spoke of their deep interest in the fate of the country and all of humanity.
The idea of the welfare of the people was constantly expressed in the works of Russian classics. From this point of view, they looked at everything around them, at the past and the future. The portrayal of life phenomena, especially significant for the people, and their assessment from the point of view of their interests, gave rise to that property of literature, which, as you remember, is called nationality. The nationality of our literature, conditioned by the connection between writers and the liberation movement, is one of its highest ideological and aesthetic achievements. The writers themselves felt themselves to be the flesh of the flesh of the people, and this gave their work a distinctly democratic orientation. And my incorruptible voice was an echo of the Russian people, - said young Pushkin. Lermontov's voice sounded like a bell on a veche tower during the days of celebrations and people's troubles. And Nekrasov, as if summing up the results of his creative activity, said in his declining years: I dedicated the lyre to my people.
The nationality of Russian classical literature is inextricably linked with its other characteristic feature - patriotism. Anxiety for the fate of his native country, the pain caused by the troubles that it endured, the desire to look into the future and faith in it - all this was inherent in the great writers of the Russian land, with all the differences in their ideological positions, their creative talents.
For leading Russian writers, love for the homeland is, first of all, love for people's Russia, for those spiritual values that the people created. Literature has long found inspiration in oral folk art. Remember the tales of Pushkin and Shchedrin, Evenings on a farm near Dikanka Gogol, Who lives well in Russia Nekrasov. At the same time, true patriots have always hated the stranglers of progressive thought, the executioners of Freedom, Genius and Glory. With what crushing force Lermontov expressed these feelings in his poems Farewell, unwashed Russia ... and the Motherland! How ironically and evil Tolstoy speaks of anti-people Russia in War and Peace, and what love for the people the pages of this epic dedicated to them are imbued with! The best Russian writers considered it their highest patriotic duty to fight for the reconstruction of life, for the good of the people, for human dignity.
All these ideological aspirations inevitably pushed Russian writers on the path of a comprehensive knowledge of life. It was necessary to understand the inner meaning of what was happening, to understand the reasons for the complex and contradictory processes taking place in the world of social relations and in the human psyche. And of course, the more fully life was revealed to the writers in the process of cognition, the more acutely they felt the need to reorganize it.
The urgent need to know life determined the main direction in the development of Russian literature of the 19th century - the direction of critical realism. The striving for the whole truth (Turgenev) completely possessed the talent and conscience of the great writers of the century. It was this aspiration that determined the nature of Russian realism - its fearlessness in revealing the most complex phenomena of life, uncompromising in exposing social evil, insight in elucidating its causes.
Various aspects of reality fell into the sphere of attention of realist writers (as Chernyshevsky said, everything of general interest in life): from the events of the historical life of peoples and states (Poltava, War and Peace) to the fate of a little man (Overcoat, Poor People); from processes of world-historical significance (the Patriotic War of 1812) to the most humbled emotional experiences. And everything was analyzed, everything was the subject of intense contemplation. It was not for nothing that Gorky noted that in the field of vision of the old writers lay the whole immense world, the world that they at all costs wanted to free from evil.
Closely connected with reality, the literature of critical realism captured all the changes that took place in the life of Russia, in human psychology. Over time, the appearance of the central character has changed. You will unmistakably determine the time stamp on Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin; it is obvious to you that for all their differences, Bazarov, Rakhmetov, Raskolnikov belong to approximately the same era; historically, Turgenev accurately captured in his novels the type of Russian leader at different stages of social development.
Moving from decade to decade, you could not help but notice what new facets, new shades were acquired by themes that passed through the entire Russian literature of the 19th century. So, in the era of the 1920s and 1930s, Pushkin spoke about the role of the people in history, about the love of freedom of the people (the people are always secretly inclined to confusion). On the verge of the 40-50s, Turgenev, in the Hunter's Notes, came out with a passionate defense of the enslaved people, showed its moral superiority over the soul-owners.
With the growth of the people's liberation movement in the 1950s and 1960s, the writers of revolutionary democracy (Nekrasov, Shchedrin) strove to show not only the strength of the people, but also its weakness. They set themselves the task of helping the people overcome the inertia and passivity generated by centuries of slavery, to raise the people to the realization of their fundamental interests. You know what indignation Nekrasov evokes in the slavish consciousness of a man of the people, how bitter Shchedrin's laugh at a peasant who has twisted a string for himself.
In an era of breakdown in social relations, when the old was irrevocable, everyone was crumbling before our very eyes, and the new was just taking shape (Lenin), in the conditions of the growth of the liberation movement, the role of the masses in history was clearly revealed. Relying on the artistic achievements of Pushkin, Nekrasov and Tolstoy showed that the people are the decisive force in the fate of the country. Both War and Peace, and Who Lives Well in Russia, were born precisely by this view of the role of the masses in history.
One of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature of the 19th century is, as you know, the theme of the little man. A bold innovation of the literature of critical realism was the appearance among the heroes of Pushkin and Gogol of a person unremarkable, as if snatched from life itself. You remember, of course, both Samson Vy-ripa (Stationmaster) and Akaki Akakievich (Overcoat). Sympathy for this defenseless person who does not belong to the privileged classes is one of the vivid expressions of the humanism of the best writers of the past, their irreconcilable attitude towards social injustice.
However, in the second half of the century, a small person, devoid of self-esteem, meekly bearing the burden of social hardship, a humiliated and insulted person (Dostoevsky) evokes not only compassion, but also condemnation among leading writers. Apparently, in this regard, you will be the first to name the stories of Chekhov (Death of an official, Tolstoy and thin), a writer for whom the loss of a person's self-esteem was tantamount to moral death. Not only Chekhov, but also Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky were convinced that a person should not put up with the situation of a worn rag.
The social shifts that took place in the second half of the 19th century gave rise to the need to embrace Russia in artistic thought in its movement from the past to the present and the future. Hence the emergence of the broadest historical generalizations, deep historical concepts. Without this, neither the Past and other things could have been created, we, the poem Who lives well in Russia, nor the novel What is to be done ?, nor War and Peace. According to the authors of these works, they owe much to the experience of their predecessors, such works as the Bronze Horseman and Dead Souls, which are full of reflections on the fate of Russia. Whatever Russian writers talk about, they have always affirmed belief in the possibility of just social relations, in the feasibility of their high social ideals, which they strove to make available to their readers. According to Nekrasov, literature should not deviate a single step from its goal - to raise society to its ideal - the ideal of goodness, light, truth. And such an angry writer as Saltykov-Shchedrin, who crushed with his indignant laugh, it seems, everything he touched, called for the affirmation of a positive ideal.
Hence the urge of Russian writers to depict the best people of their time, such as Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Insarov, Rakhmetov. The very concept of beauty in art, beauty in art, merged among Russian writers with the concept of good, truth, justice, to the struggle for the triumph of which they called their work.
^ 2. THE INFLUENCE OF LITERATURE ON THE FLOWER OF PAINTING, MUSIC, THEATER.
The work of the great Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century, the views of the revolutionary democrats on art, influence the development of painting, music, and theater. The opposite effect also occurs. The mutual enrichment of the arts, which began in the era of Pushkin and Glinka, Gogol and Fedotov, Belinsky and Shchepkin, is expanding. Reflection of the fundamental interests of the people, the portrayal of the true truth of life, the struggle against pure art, leading away from social issues - this is what determines the development of Russian art in the 19th century.
In the 60s, a group of graduates of the Academy of Arts led by I.N.Kramskoy united in the Artel of Artists. Young painters were ardent supporters of the views of Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, the remarkable art critic V.V. Stasov. They strove to truthfully portray reality, to reveal their democratic convictions in their work.
In the early 70s, the Association of Traveling Exhibitions grew out of the Artel. Until the end of the 90s, it united many of the best artists in Russia and promoted advanced visual arts. Exhibitions organized by the Partnership in different cities of Russia introduced Russian society to such creations of realistic art as Peter I interrogating Tsarevich Alexei ... N.N. Ge, Rye I.I.Shishkin, Kursist P.A. VI Surikov, and many others. Always staying true to truth and democratic ideals, the Wanderers touched upon the most diverse aspects of life. Remember at least the paintings of V.G. Perov, familiar to you, depicting a joyless childhood (Troika), the grief of a peasant widow (Seeing off the deceased), exposing the hypocrisy and greed of the clergy (Rural procession on Easter, Tea drinking in Mytishchi), the smug stupidity of the merchants (Arrival governess to the merchant's house).
At the beginning of his career, IE Repin, the great realist, associate of Nekrasov and Saltykov-Shchedrin, was associated with the Wanderers.
YI Levitan, a friend of A.P. Chekhov, also became a Wanderer. A subtle lyricist, in love with his native nature, Levitan in his landscapes revealed the spiritual world of a person thirsting for harmony and beauty.
The beneficial influence of progressive literature and criticism is also reflected in the development of Russian musical art.
A.S.Dargomyzhsky, defending the truth of life in music, supports and inspires a circle of young musicians, later called the Mighty Handful. The members of this circle are M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P. Borodin were not only musicians, but also thinkers close in their views to Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky. Dargomyzhsky participated in the publication of the militant revolutionary-democratic magazine Iskra.
Life, wherever it affects; truth, no matter how salty; a bold, sincere speech to people - this is how Mussorgsky defined the requirements for music, expressing the views of his circle.
Members of the Mighty Handful have created works that are the pride of Russian and world art. These are Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina Mussorgsky, Prince Igor Borodin, Snow Maiden and the Tsar's bride of Rimsky-Korsakov and many other operas, romances, symphonic works.
Realistic disclosure of a person's inner world, an appeal to complex philosophical problems, an inner drama characteristic of Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century, found a brilliant embodiment in the music of PI Tchaikovsky. In search of ideas and plots for his works, the composer often turned to literature, to the works of Pushkin, Fet, A. Tolstoy.
Tchaikovsky's symphonies, his ballets, operas by Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa are performed all over the world today.
The best Russian actors and directors of the second half of the 19th century asserted realism on the stage. They fought against the theatrical cliché, lack of ideology and tastelessness, for the development of the traditions of the great Shchepkin, for the truthfulness and high ideology of the performing arts.
The Moscow Maly Theater became the school of realism, with which the activities of the outstanding playwright A. N. Ostrovsky are associated. This theater is still called Ostrovsky's house.
Among the many remarkable actors of the Maly Theater, one of the first places belongs to MN Ermolova. She created the image of an advanced woman who opposes family and social oppression, against the vulgar morality of property owners. Her play was fanned with truth and strength of feeling, heroic pathos. After performances with Yermolova's participation, democratic students often left the theater with revolutionary songs. When we remember ... your images, scorching with fire, imbued with boundless love for freedom and hatred for oppression, we want to shout out to historians our demands that in their books next to the portraits of freedom fighters the portrait of Yermolova should be in one of the places of honor, - said , referring to the great actress, V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko.
The name of Nemirovich-Danchenko himself, a remarkable theatrical figure, as well as the name of his colleague, the great actor, director, theater teacher K.S. Stanislavsky, are associated with the historical transformations of Russian theater at the end of the 19th century. Keeping and developing the best traditions of Russian stage art, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, together with a group of talented young actors, created the Moscow Art Theater. The program of the beginning business was revolutionary, - Stanislavsky later recalled. - We protested against the old manner of playing, and against theatricality, and against false pathos, declamation, and against acting tune, and against bad conventions of staging, scenery ... and against an insignificant repertoire. the theaters of that time. The true birth of the new theater was the staging of Chekhov's play The Seagull in 1898.
In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose seven years later than in Europe. We can talk about his some imitation. In Russian culture, there was no opposition between man and God. Zhukovsky appears, who remakes the German ballads in the Russian way: ‘Svetlana’ and ‘Lyudmila’. Byron's version of romanticism lived and felt in his work first in Russian culture, Pushkin, then Lermontov. How did they take romanticism? What attracted them? What didn’t suit you?
First I would like to analyze Pushkin's romantic poems, and then go on to Lermontov.
Let's turn to the poem "Prisoner of the Caucasus".
The plot of the poem is romantic. Pushkin takes on a romantic hero with a vague biography. Everything seems to be going well, but upon further reading of the poem, we draw attention to the fact that there is a violation in the system of images, the autocracy of the hero. The plot is romantic, the hero is romantic, but Pushkin cannot hide behind him, he begins to be interested in another person - the girl, after all, Pushkin himself, in his persona, ‘crawls’ into the end of the poem, giving an analysis of the political situation in the Caucasus. So, three heroes were formed: Pushkin, a Caucasian prisoner, a girl. Attention to another person did not allow Pushkin to comply with the romantic canon. This is how Pushkin himself says about it: “This poem showed only one thing that I am not fit for romance.” The Robber Brothers is another romantic poem that never happened. This poem has a romantic plot.
Let's turn to the composition. Pushkin begins with a description of the robbers: ‘Kalmyk, ugly Bashkir, And red-haired Finn’ .... ‘who has gone through all the degrees of villainy with a stone soul’. After a short preface, Pushkin entrusts the proof of what was said to the robber. Suddenly, the robber emphasizes that he and his brother are unhappy people, they had an orphan childhood, and there is absolutely no experience of disinterested love. Let's identify the discrepancy with the canon. First, the romantic hero is not subject to jurisdiction; the robber is not a superman. And, of course, there is a distance between the author and the robber. Pushkin had the gift of attention to people, we can say that he writes this work not so much according to romantic laws, but according to his conscience. But she also showed that Pushkin is not suitable for romance.
I wonder if Pushkin is the most romantic of the romantic poems? Yes, this is the 'Bakhchisarai Fountain'. The plot of this poem is romantic. But three heroes appear in it: Girey, Zarema and Maria. Girey (and, perhaps, Pushkin himself) chooses the non-romantic Maria. “To Mary, a pure soul appeared to me, or Zarema was running around, breathing with jealousy.” The verb ‘worn’ evokes negative emotions. But still, in this situation of a love triangle, Pushkin sympathizes with everyone and admits the presence of romanticism.
Now I would like to talk about Pushkin's last failed poem "The Gypsies". The plot of this poem is romantic, but there is a violation in the system of images: the collision of two romantic heroes who are unable to love disinterestedly leads to dire consequences. Zemfira's father understands and accepts life with joys and sorrows. He forgives the murder of his daughter, as he previously managed to forgive the betrayal of his wife, but says Aleko: “You were not born for a wild lot, you only want will for yourself.” We can clearly observe that the hero is being judged.
Pushkin groped and outlined the most vulnerable point of a person's romantic position: he wants everything only for himself. Later, Pushkin will say: "We are all looking at Napoleons, two-legged creatures are one weapon for us."
Now let's turn to Lermontov and turn to the poem "Mtsyri", and then draw general conclusions.
There are two romantic heroes in this poem, therefore, if it is a romantic poem, then it is very peculiar: first, the second hero, Jonathan, is conveyed by the author through the epigraph; secondly, the author does not connect with Mtsyri, we see that the hero solves the problem of willfulness in his own way, and Lermontov, throughout the entire poem, only thinks about solving this problem. He does not judge his hero, but he does not justify either, but he takes a certain position - understanding. He understands Mtsyri, but sees the consequences of this behavior, it is not for nothing that there is a strangeness in the composition: the conclusion that stands at the beginning (thus, Lermontov does not impose his thoughts on the reader) speaks of the destroyed monastery and general conciliarity. All this is connected with the act of Mtsyri. It turns out that romanticism in Russian culture is being transformed into thinking. It turns out romanticism from the point of view of realism.
So, we can say that Pushkin and Lermontov did not succeed in becoming romantics (however, Lermontov was once able to comply with romantic laws - in the drama "Masquerade"). Through their experiments, the poets showed that in England the position of an individualist could be fruitful, but in Russia it could not. Although Pushkin and Lermontov did not succeed in becoming romantics, they opened the way for the development of realism. In 1825, the first realistic work was published: ‘Boris Godunov’, then ‘The Captain’s Daughter’, ‘Eugene Onegin’, ‘A Hero of Our Time’ and many others.
^ 4. Historical and literary meaning of "Woe from Wit"
… Belinsky revealed in his time. The great critic wrote: “Together with Pushkin’s Onegin,“ Woe from Wit ”was the first example of a poetic depiction of Russian reality in the broad sense of the word. In this respect, both of these works laid the foundation for subsequent literature, were the school from which both Lermontov and Gogol emerged. Without Onegin, a Hero of Our Time would have been impossible; just as without Onegin and Woe from Wit, Gogol would not have felt ready for a depiction of Russian reality, full of such depth and truth. " In a realistic depiction of everyday life and customs, the comedy "Woe from Wit" is the predecessor of Gogol's "Inspector General". Gogol himself highly appreciated Griboyedov's satirical talent and the social typicality of the negative characters he created. There is no doubt that in "The Inspector General" Gogol used the achievements of Griboyedov in creating a realistic group portrait of a certain social environment, in depicting characters using speech characteristics, and so on.
But above all, these brilliant comedies bring together accusatory pathos, loyalty to Russian reality, content and generalizing common noun meaning of the types created by Griboyedov and Gogol. Many motives of the Griboyedov comedy are heard in Lermontov's "Masquerade", and in Ostrovsky's "Profitable Place" (Zhadov's accusatory statements), and in the Sukhovo-Kobylin trilogy. A.M. Gorky saw in the work of Griboyedov an important link in the development of that satirical and accusatory line of Russian realistic literature, which played an exceptional role in the Russian social movement. "Woe from Wit" Gorky considered "an exemplary instructive play", "amazing in its perfection."
The importance of Griboyedov's comedy in the development of Russian theater is extremely important. "Woe from Wit" contributed to the victory of realism on the Russian stage. The stage history of "Woe from Wit" reflected the main stages in the history of Russian theater up to our time. In the first full performances of the comedy in Moscow and St. Petersburg, Shchepkin (Famusov), Mo-chalov, Karatygin (Chatsky), Zhivokini (Repetilov) act as performers. The Russian stage did not immediately reveal the deep social and psychological content of Woe from Wit. Most of the actors played their roles in the style of the then popular vaudeville or plays of the classic repertoire. A contemporary testifies: “Accustomed to presenting roles that are always lonely, always cast in one form, they were afraid to deviate from the accepted rules, they could not dare to play new faces. G. Schepkin, playing Famusov, did not know how to forget Tranzhirim, Mr. Mochalov - Cruton, and so on.
For example, the actor who represented Platon Mikhailovich thought that this person was an ordinary husband under the rule of his wife, while Platon Mikhailovich was completely different. This is a kind, clever and even dashing swordsman of our time, who got into the atmosphere of living rooms, bedrooms and nurseries and was lazy there; the pep in him is the same, but the circumstances surrounding him have changed. He is not in the commands of his wife, but he is simply lazy and condescends in all his good half, as condescends to a beloved child. All the faces in Griboyedov's comedy are just as original. " Even M.S.Schepkin only gradually gave a realistic stage embodiment of one of the central characters of the comedy - Famusov. "Woe from Wit" helped him deepen his skills, create an image as alive as life itself. Shchepkin spoke of Griboyedov and Gogol as "two great comic writers" to whom he "owes the most." “They, by the power of their mighty talent, so to speak, put me on a prominent stage in art,” 2 - MS Schepkin said about Griboyedov and Gogol.
Particularly difficult was the role of Chatsky, which even such outstanding actors as V. Karatygin and P. Mochalov played in a pseudo-romantic or classicist style. Only in the 40s. on the stage of the Moscow Maly Theater, the remarkable Russian actor I. V. Samarin gave the image of Chatsky in accordance with Griboyedov's plan, as an advanced figure of his time and at the same time as a living, suffering person. “Samarin understood and played Chatsky in a way that none of our actors understood or played him,” noted the theater magazine “Repertoire and Pantheon” in 1846. on the stage they took the form of almost tragic heroes, oratory and rant with all the importance of preachers ... Samarin in the first act was cheerful, talkative, innocently mocking. His play and conversation were natural to the highest degree. A deep realistic penetration into the essence of Chatsky's image characterized Samarin's performance, which marked a new stage in the stage story of Woe from Wit.
The images of the comedy were embodied by the great Russian actors A. P. Lensky, G. N. Fedotova, M. N. Ermolova, A. I. Yuzhin, V. N. Davydov and many others, for whom "Woe from Wit" was instructive and fruitful school of true art. The performances of the Moscow Maly Theater were especially significant in the age-old stage history of Woe from Wit.
The Griboyedov comedy is one of the theater's favorite plays. In the interpretation of comedy and its images, the theater departed from the best realistic traditions of the Russian stage. From staging to staging, the social content of "Woe from Wit" was revealed more and more clearly. Socio-political motives are clearly heard, for example, in the production of the Moscow Art Theater in 1925.
^ 5.Double-world in Pushkin's lyrics. Ode to Liberty
Pushkin's views were fully and clearly expressed in his ode "Liberty", written shortly after leaving the lyceum, in the same 1817.
The very title of the ode indicates that Pushkin took the eponymous poem by Radishchev as a model. In the version of one line of "Monument" Pushkin emphasizes the connection between his ode and the ode of Radishchev.
Pushkin, like Radishchev, glorifies liberty, political freedom. Both of them point to historical examples of the triumph of freedom (Radishchev - to the English revolution of the 17th century, Pushkin - to the French revolution of 1789). Following Radishchev, Pushkin believes that an equal law for all is a guarantee of ensuring political freedom in the country.
But the ode to Radishchev is a call for a people's revolution, for the overthrow of tsarist power in general, and Pushkin's ode is directed only against "tyrants" who put themselves above the law. Pushkin expressed in his ode the views of the early Decembrists, under whose influence he was.
However, the power of Pushkin's verse, the artistic skill of the poet gave the ode a more revolutionary meaning. It was perceived by the advanced youth as a call for revolution. For example, the famous Russian surgeon Pirogov, recalling the days of his youth, tells the following fact. One of his fellow students, once talking about Pushkin's political views, reflect
Humanism of Russian classical literature
The main source of the artistic power of Russian classical literature is its close connection with the people; in serving the people, Russian literature saw the main meaning of its existence. "Burn the hearts of people with a verb" called the poets A.S. Pushkin. M.Yu. Lermontov wrote that the mighty words of poetry should sound
... like a bell on a veche tower
During the days of celebrations and troubles of the people.
N.A. gave his lyre to the struggle for the happiness of the people, for their liberation from slavery and poverty. Nekrasov. The work of genius writers - Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin, Turgenev and Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov - with all the differences in the artistic form and ideological content of their works, is united by a deep connection with the life of the people, a truthful depiction of reality, a sincere desire to serve the happiness of the motherland. Great Russian writers did not recognize “art for art,” they were the heralds of socially active art, art for the people. Revealing the moral greatness and spiritual wealth of the working people, they awakened the reader's sympathy for ordinary people, faith in the strength of the people, its future.
Beginning in the 18th century, Russian literature waged a passionate struggle for the liberation of the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.
This is Radishchev, who portrayed the autocratic system of the era as "a monster bastard, mischievous, huge, hundred-zeal and bark."
This is Fonvizin, who exposed rude serf-owners like the Prostakovs and Skotinins to shame.
This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in "his cruel age he glorified freedom."
This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his untimely death there.
There is no need to list all the names of Russian writers in order to prove the loyalty of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.
Along with the acuteness of the social problems that characterize Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its posing of moral problems.
Russian literature has always tried to awaken "good feelings" in the reader, protested against any injustice. Pushkin and Gogol for the first time raised their voices in defense of the "little man," a modest worker; after them were taken under the protection of the "humiliated and insulted" Grigorovich, Turgenev, Dostoevsky. Nekrasov. Tolstoy, Korolenko.
At the same time, the consciousness grew in Russian literature that the "little man" should not be a passive object of pity, but a conscious fighter for human dignity. This idea was especially clearly manifested in the satirical works of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov, who condemned any manifestation of submissiveness and obsequiousness.
A large place in Russian classical literature is given to moral problems. With all the variety of interpretations of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to notice that all the positive heroes of Russian literature are characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, an indefatigable search for truth, aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life, and a readiness for self-sacrifice. In these features, the heroes of Russian literature differ significantly from the heroes of the literature of the West, whose actions are for the most part led by the pursuit of personal happiness, career, and enrichment. Heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.
Russian writers asserted their bright ideals primarily by artistic images of people with warm hearts, an inquisitive mind, a rich soul (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Rudin, Katerina Kabanova, Andrei Bolkonsky, etc.)
While truthfully covering Russian reality, Russian writers did not lose faith in the bright future of their homeland. They believed that the Russian people "will pave the way for themselves ..."
II. Russian literature of the late 18th - early 19th centuries
2.1 The main features of literary trends
Literary direction is the work of writers who have a commonality of views on the goals and objectives of art
The following literary directions are distinguished:
Classicism;
Sentimentalism;
Romanticism;
Realism.
Classicism(exemplary, first class).
In the 18th century, the works of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome were considered exemplary, worthy of imitation. Studying them allowed writers to develop rules for their works:
1. Knowing life and reflecting it in literature is possible only with the help of reason.
2. All genres of literature should be strictly divided into "high" and "low". "Tall" were the most popular, they were
Tragedies;
The "low" were:
Comedy;
In the "high" genres, the noble deeds of people were glorified, who put duty to the Fatherland above personal well-being. "Low" were different b O more democracy, written in a simpler language, plots were taken from life and non-nobility strata of the population.
3. Tragedies and comedies had to strictly adhere to the rules of the "three unities":
Unity of time (required that all events fit within a period not exceeding one day);
Unity of the place (required that all events take place in one place);
Unity of action (prescribed that the plot was not complicated by unnecessary episodes)
For its time, classicism had a positive meaning, since writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties.
(Russian classicism is associated primarily with the name of the brilliant scientist and remarkable poet Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov).
Sentimentalism(from the French word "sentimental" - sensitive).
In the center of the image, the writers put the everyday life of an ordinary person, his personal emotional experiences, his feelings. Sentimentalism rejected the strict rules of classicism. When creating a work, the writer relied on his feelings and imagination. The main genres are becoming a family novel, a sensitive story, a description of travel, etc.
(N.M. Karamzin "Poor Liza")
Romanticism
The main features of romanticism:
1. The fight against classicism, the fight against the rules that restrict the freedom of creativity.
2. In the works of romantics, the personality of the writer and his experiences are clearly manifested.
3. Writers show interest in everything extraordinary, bright, mysterious. The basic principle of romanticism: the portrayal of exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances.
4. Romantics are characterized by an interest in folk art.
5. Romantic works are distinguished by the colorfulness of the language.
(Romanticism manifested itself most vividly in Russian literature in the works of V.A.Zhukovsky, the Decembrist poets, in the early works of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov).
"Realism," said M. Gorky, "refers to a truthful, unadorned depiction of people and their living conditions." The main feature of realism is the portrayal of typical characters in typical circumstances.
Typical we call those images in which the most vividly, fully and truthfully embodied the most important features characteristic of a particular historical period for a particular social group.
(In the formation of Russian realism in the early 19th century, I.A.Krylov and A.S. Griboyedov played an important role, but A.S. Pushkin was the true founder of Russian realistic literature).
2.2 Derzhavin G.R., Zhukovsky V.A. (Overview study)
2.2.1 Derzhavin Gavriil Romanovich (1743 - 1816)
“We have in Derzhavin a great, genius Russian poet, who was a true echo of the life of the Russian people, a true echo of the century of Catherine II” (VG Belinsky).
In the second half of the 18th century, there was a rapid growth and strengthening of the Russian state. This was facilitated by the era of victorious campaigns of the heroic Russian troops, led by Suvorov and his associates. The Russian people are confidently developing their national culture, science and education.
The successes achieved entered into striking conflict with the plight of the serf peasantry, which constituted the majority of the population of Russia.
The "noble empress" Catherine II, who had a reputation in Western Europe as an enlightened and humane empress, immensely intensified serfdom. This resulted in numerous peasant unrest, which in 1773-1775 developed into a formidable people's war led by E. Pugachev.
The question of the fate of the people became a burning problem that attracted the close attention of the best people of the era. Including G.R. Derzhavin.
Derzhavin's life experience was rich and varied. He began his service as an ordinary soldier, and ended it as a minister. In his official activities, he came into contact with the life of different strata of society, from the common people to the court circles. And this rich life experience is widely reflected by Derzhavin, an honest and direct man, in his work.
Derzhavin took a lot from the rules of classicism. Here classicism manifests itself in the depiction of the image of Catherine II, endowed with all kinds of virtues; in harmony of construction; in a ten-line stanza typical for a Russian ode, etc.
But, contrary to the rules of classicism, according to which it was impossible to mix different genres in one work, Derzhavin combines ode with satire, sharply opposing the positive image of the queen to the negative images of her nobles (G. Potemkina, A. Orlova, P. Panin).
Departure from classicism and in violation of strict rules in the language. For the ode, the "high" style was supposed to be, and Derzhavin, along with the solemn and stately style, has very simple words ("You see the tomfoolery through your fingers. You cannot stand one evil only"). And sometimes there are even lines of “low calm” (“And they don’t smear their faces with soot”).
Ode to "Sovereigns and Judges" (read)
Derzhavin witnessed the Peasant War under the leadership of Pugachev and, of course, understood that the uprising was caused by the exorbitant oppression of serfdom and the abuse of officials who robbed the people.
"Verily, this was the Golden Age of our literature,
the period of her innocence and bliss! .. "
M. A. Antonovich
M. Antonovich in his article called the "golden age of literature" the beginning of the 19th century — the period of creativity of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. Subsequently, this definition began to characterize the literature of the entire 19th century - up to the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.
What are the main features of Russian classical literature of this period?
Sentimentalism, fashionable at the beginning of the century, gradually fades into the background - the formation of romanticism begins, and since the middle of the century, realism has ruled the ball.
New types of heroes appear in the literature: the "little man" who most often perishes under the pressure of the foundations adopted in society and the "extra man" is a string of images, starting with Onegin and Pechorin.
Continuing the traditions of satirical depiction, proposed by M. Fonvizin, in the literature of the 19th century, the satirical depiction of the vices of modern society becomes one of the central motives. Often, satire also takes grotesque forms. Vivid examples are Gogol's "The Nose" or "The History of a City" by ME Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Another distinctive feature of the literature of this period is its acute social orientation. Writers and poets are increasingly turning to social and political topics, often plunging into the field of psychology. This leitmotif permeates the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. A new form appears - the Russian realistic novel, with its deep psychologism, harsh criticism of reality, irreconcilable enmity with existing foundations and loud calls for renewal.
Well, the main reason that prompted many critics to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture: the literature of this period, despite a number of unfavorable factors, had a powerful influence on the development of world culture as a whole. By absorbing all the best that world literature had to offer, Russian literature was able to remain distinctive and unique.
Russian writers of the 19th century
V.A. Zhukovsky- a mentor of Pushkin and his Teacher. It is Vasily Andreevich who is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. We can say that Zhukovsky "paved the way" for Pushkin's courageous experiments, since he was the first to expand the scope of the poetic word. After Zhukovsky, the era of democratization of the Russian language began, which Pushkin brilliantly continued.
Selected Poems:
A.S. Griboyedov went down in history as the author of one work. But what a! Masterpiece! Phrases and quotes from the comedy "Woe from Wit" have long become winged, and the work itself is considered the first realistic comedy in the history of Russian literature.
Analysis of the work:
A.S. Pushkin... He was called differently: A. Grigoriev claimed that "Pushkin is our everything!" Russia ". Quite simply, it's a Genius.
The greatest merit of Pushkin is that he radically changed the Russian literary language, saving it from pretentious abbreviations like "young, brag, sweet", from ridiculous "marshmallows", "Psyche", "Cupids", so revered in high-flown elegies, from borrowings, which then abounded in Russian poetry. Pushkin brought colloquial vocabulary, craft slang, elements of Russian folklore to the pages of printed publications.
A. N. Ostrovsky also pointed out one more important achievement of this genius poet. Before Pushkin, Russian literature was imitative, stubbornly imposing traditions and ideals alien to our people. Pushkin, on the other hand, "gave the Russian writer the courage to be Russian," "he opened the Russian soul." In his stories and novels, for the first time, the theme of the morality of the social ideals of that time is raised so vividly. And the main character, with the light hand of Pushkin, now becomes an ordinary "little man" - with his thoughts and hopes, desires and character.
Analysis of works:
M.Yu. Lermontov- bright, mysterious, with a touch of mysticism and an incredible thirst for will. All his work is a unique fusion of romanticism and realism. Moreover, both directions do not oppose at all, but, as it were, complement each other. This man went down in history as a poet, writer, playwright and artist. He penned 5 plays: the most famous - the drama "Masquerade".
And among prose works, the real brilliant of creativity is the novel "Hero of Our Time" - the first realistic novel in prose in the history of Russian literature, where for the first time a writer tries to trace the "dialectic of the soul" of his hero, mercilessly subjecting him to psychological analysis. This innovative creative method of Lermontov will be used in the future by many Russian and foreign writers.
Selected works:
N.V. Gogol known as a writer and playwright, but it is no coincidence that one of his most famous works - "Dead Souls" is considered a poem. There is no other such Master of the word in world literature. Gogol's language is melodious, incredibly bright and imaginative. This was most clearly manifested in his collection "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka".
On the other hand, N. V. Gogol is considered the founder of the "natural school", with its satire bordering on the grotesque, accusatory motives and ridicule of human vices.
Selected works:
I.S. Turgenev- the greatest Russian novelist who established the canons of the classic novel. He continues the traditions established by Pushkin and Gogol. He often refers to the topic of "an extra person", trying to convey the relevance and significance of social ideas through the fate of his hero.
Turgenev's merit also lies in the fact that he became the first propagandist of Russian culture in Europe. He is a prose writer who opened the world of the Russian peasantry, intelligentsia and revolutionaries to the foreign countries. And the string of female images in his novels became the pinnacle of the writer's skill.
Selected works:
A.N. Ostrovsky- an outstanding Russian playwright. Most precisely, I. Goncharov expressed the merits of Ostrovsky, recognizing him as the creator of the Russian folk theater. The plays of this writer became the "school of life" for the next generation of playwrights. And the Moscow Maly Theater, where most of the plays of this talented writer were staged, proudly calls itself the "House of Ostrovsky".
Selected works:
I. A. Goncharov continued to develop the traditions of the Russian realistic novel. The author of the famous trilogy, who, like no one else, managed to describe the main vice of the Russian people - laziness. With the light hand of the writer, the term "Oblomovism" also appeared.
Selected works:
L.N. Tolstoy- a real lump of Russian literature. His novels are recognized as the pinnacle of the art of romance writing. The style of presentation and creative method of L. Tolstoy are still considered the standard of the writer's skill. And his ideas of humanism had a huge impact on the development of humanistic ideas around the world.
Selected works:
N.S. Leskov- a talented follower of the traditions of N. Gogol. He made a huge contribution to the development of new genre forms in literature, such as pictures from life, rhapsodies, incredible events.
Selected works:
N.G. Chernyshevsky- an outstanding writer and literary critic who proposed his theory about the aesthetics of the relationship between art and reality. This theory became the reference for the literature of the next several generations.
Selected works:
F.M. Dostoevsky- a genius writer, whose psychological novels are known all over the world. Dostoevsky is often called the forerunner of such trends in culture as existentialism and surrealism.
Selected works:
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin- the greatest satirist, who brought the art of exposure, ridicule and parody to the heights of skill.
Selected works:
A.P. Chekhov... With this name historians traditionally end the era of the golden age of Russian literature. Chekhov was recognized throughout the world during his lifetime. His stories have become a benchmark for novelist writers. And Chekhov's plays had a huge impact on the development of world drama.
Selected works:
Towards the end of the 19th century, the traditions of critical realism began to fade away. In a society permeated through and through with pre-revolutionary moods, mystical, partly even decadent moods have become fashionable. They became the forerunners of the emergence of a new literary trend - Symbolism and marked the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian literature - the Silver Age of poetry.
