MORPHOLOGY. Part I.
Topic 1. Morphology as a section of science on language
The subject of morphology
Morphology (from Greek. Morphe - Form and Logos - Teaching) - This is a grammatical doctrine of the word. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes, which grammatical values \u200b\u200bare those or other words, words of words, identifies the specificity of grammatical categories from words related to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have categories of kind, numbers and cases. However, these categories of these categories are independent, and the names of adjectives are syntactically due, depend on the kind, number and case of the nouns, with which this adjective is combined (Wed: big House, Big House, Big Houseetc.; big com ours; large building; big housesetc.).
The problem of morphology includes the definition of a circle of words with one or another grammatical category. Grammar categories or covers the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main array of words belonging to it. So, Nouns Pluralia Tantum (Scissors, twilight, yeastetc.) do not possess the category of the genus, impersonal verbs do not have "facial categories. One of the most important problems of morphology is the identification and description of the specifics of the functioning of grammatical categories in the vocabulary of different parts of speech.
Morphology establishes the composition of grammatical forms of different types of words, identifies the rules for changing words, distributes words by the types of declination and hiding.
The morphology includes the doctrine of parts of speech. It considers the semantic and formal features of the words of various discharges, develops criteria and rules for the classification of words in parts of speech, determines the circle of words of each part of speech, sets the system of speech parts, studies the lexico-grammatical features of the words of each part of speech, identifies the patterns of interaction between speech parts.
Grammatical meanings of words
The word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical values. For example, a word lampindicates a "lighting or heating device of various devices". This is his lexical meaning. In the semantic content of the word lampeven the values \u200b\u200bof the female kind, the nominative case and the only number are included. This is his grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of the word is an individual semantic sign that distinguishes it from other words. Even close words in the meaning of the word (Wed: lamp, Lampada, Lantern)have different lexical values. Lampada -"A small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of icons"; lampit has three meanings: 1) "Lighting device in the form of a glass bowl, boxes with glass walls"; 2) Special: "Glass lumen in the roof, as well as a glazed protrusion in the building"; 3) Portable: "Bruise from beatings, from the bruise."
Grammar values \u200b\u200bare characteristic of a whole class of words. So, the values \u200b\u200bof the female kind, the only number, the nominative case are united by words lamp, Water, Fish, Room, Mermaid, Thoughtet al. who have nothing to do in their lexical values. Cf. Also: 1) run, fly, read, raise, write, jumped;2) sang, painted, read, thought, danced, shot;3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy.The words of the first row indicate different processes, but they all express the grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the 1st person, the only number. The words of the second row are combined with the values \u200b\u200bof the past time, the only number, male. The genus, the words of the third row - the values \u200b\u200bof the imperative inclination, units. numbers. Thus, the grammatical value is an abstract value, distracted from the lexical content of the word and inherent in a whole class of words.
The grammatical values \u200b\u200bare unequal. One grammatical meaning necessarily implies the presence of another (or other), uniform and co-relating to it. For example, the meaning of the only number involves a plural (Bird - Birds, Nagi - Pasha);the value of the imperfect look appears in a pair with the value of the perfect species (Remove- shoot, take - take);meaning to them. Pad. It comes into relations with all other cased values.
Grammar values \u200b\u200bare not isolated from lexical. They seem to lay on lexical (real, real) meaning of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often called concomitant. So, grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the genus, numbers and -padzha in the noun bookaccompany his lexical significance; Grammar values \u200b\u200bof the 3rd face, units. Numbers, Nesov. View in the verb drawsbased on its lexical meaning. A. A. Chematov wrote about this: "The grammatical importance of the language form is contacted by its real meaning. The real meaning of the word depends on the correspondence of it as a verbal sign of one or another phenomenon of the outside world. The grammatical meaning of the word is its value, what it has in relation to other words. The actual value associates the word directly with the outside world, the grammatical value binds it primarily with in other words ".
Grammatical values \u200b\u200breflect or certain features of the phenomena of the outside world, or the attitude of the thought speaking, or internal speakers and the relationship between the words. They noted by A. A. Chematov, "(1) may be based in part on phenomena, data in the outside world: for example, MN. h. birdsit depends on the fact that we mean the presentation is not about one, but about several birds ... (2) the partially associated values \u200b\u200bare based on a subjective attitude to a certain phenomenon: for example, I wentmeans the same action that I i gobut with the place, according to the speaker, in the past time ... (3) partially, finally, the concomitant values \u200b\u200bare based ... on the formal, the external reason given in the Word in the very word: so, the female word bookit depends only on what it ends on -a.
Words have lexical and grammatical values. Lexical values \u200b\u200bare studied by lexicology, grammatical values \u200b\u200bare studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
Lexical meaning Words are a reflection in the word of a particular phenomenon of reality (subject, events, quality, actions, relationship, etc.).
Grammar meanings Words is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table - noun male genus), as an element of the word separation series ( table, table, table etc.) and as an element of phrase or a suggestion in which the word is associated with in other words ( feet table, put the book on the table).
Lexical meaning words individually: It is inherent in this word and this is degrading this word from others, each of which has its own, also an individual value.
Grammar value characterizes, on the contrary, whole discharges and classes of words; It is categorically .
Compare words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different items. At the same time, they are characterized by common, alone and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to one part of speech - noucent, to one grammatical nature - male and have the form of the same number - the only one.
An important sign of grammatical meaning, distinguishing it from the value of the lexical, is the obligation of expression: we cannot use the word without expressing its grammatical values \u200b\u200b(with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.). So, pronouncing the word table, We not only call a certain subject, but also express such signs of this noun, like a genus (male), the number (only), the case (nominative or accusative, Wed: In the corner there was a table. - I see the table). All these signs of form table The essence of its grammatical values \u200b\u200bexpressed by the so-called zero flexion.
Pronounced wordform table (for example, in the proposal Tanned passage table), We are expressing using the end grammatical meanings Certificate case (cf. endings serving to express case values: table a, Table-U, Table-E),male genus (cf. ending, which have a nouns of women's nouns in the art: water-oh)single number (cf. table-ami). Lexic value the words table- "The subject of home furniture, which is a surface of a solid material, strengthened on one or more legs, and an employee in order to put or put something on it" - in all the case of this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root basis table-,which possesses the specified lexical value, there are no other means of expressing this value similar to the means of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the case, genus, number, etc.
Types of lexical values \u200b\u200bof words in Russian
Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to distinguish several types of lexical meaning words in Russian.
1. By the method of nomination Live and portable words of words are allocated.
Direct(or the main, most importantly) the meaning of the word is such a value that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.
For example, words table, black, boiled have the following main values:
1. "The piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal boards on high supports, legs".
2. "Colors of soot, coal."
3. "Brilliant, bubble, evaporating from strong heating" (about liquids).
These values \u200b\u200bare stable, although historically can change. For example, a word table In ancient Russian language meant "throne", "Prince", "Capital".
The direct values \u200b\u200bof the words are less than all other depend on context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct values \u200b\u200bhave the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the smallest syntagmatic linations.
Portable (indirect) The meaning of words arise as a result of the transfer of the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, the generality of their signs, functions, etc.
So, the word tableit has several portable values:
1. "The subject of special equipment or part of the machine of similar shape": operating table, raise the machine table.
2. "Food, Food": rent a room with a table.
3. "Department in the institution, who knows some special circle of affairs": information desk.
Words the black Such portable values:
1. "Dark, in contrast to something lighter, referred to as white": the black bread.
2. "Taking dark color, darkened": the black from Zagara.
3. "Kurny" (only full form, outdated): black Izba.
4. "Gloomy, urgent, heavy": black Thoughts.
5. "Criminal, malicious": black Treason.
6. "Not Main, Hardened" (Full form only): the black Stroke in the house.
7. "Physically heavy and unqualified" (full form only): black Work etc.
Word boil It has such portable values:
1. "Manifest to a strong": work is in full swing.
2. "Show something with strength, to a strong extent": boil indignation.
As you can see, indirect values \u200b\u200bappear on words that are not correlated directly with the concept, but come closer to it according to various associations apparent for speaking.
Portable values \u200b\u200bcan save imagery: black thoughts, black treason, boiled indignation. Such figurative values \u200b\u200bare fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.
Reproducibility and resistant, portable-shaped values \u200b\u200bdiffer from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are individual.
However, in most cases, when transferring values, the imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names like knee pipe, kittle spout, hours and under. In such cases, they are talking about extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, dry metaphors.
Straight and portable values \u200b\u200bare highlighted within one word.
2. By the degree of semantic motivation Values \u200b\u200bare allocated unmotivated (non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the value of the morpheme in the composition of the word, and motivated(Derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the values \u200b\u200bof the producing fundamental and word-forming affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated values. Words table, Desktop, Stand, Hope, Perestroika, Antipersky, Fleel, Blown, White Motivated values \u200b\u200bare inherent, they are "produced" from the motivating part, word-forming formants and semantic components that help comprehend the meaning of the word with the derivative of the base.
In some words, the motivation of the value is somewhat stuck, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to allocate their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient relationships of words with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to allocate historical roots in words fat, Pit, Window, Cloth, Pillow, Cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, trick, ear, drag (Envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation of one or another word value may be unequal. In addition, it may seem a motivated person with philological training, while a non-specialist's semantic links of this word are represented by lost.
3. If possible lexical compatibility the values \u200b\u200bof the words are divided into free non-free. The first are based on only the objective logical connections of words. For example, a word drinkcombined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but can not be combined with such words as stone, Beauty, Running, Night. The combination of words is regulated by substantive compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts of concepts. Thus, the "freedom" of the combination of words with unrelated values \u200b\u200bis relative.
Increasing values \u200b\u200bof words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical combination, which in this case is determined by both the subject-logical, and actually language factors. For example, a word write Combined with the words victory, Up.but not combined with the word defeat. You can say mat a head (view, eyes, eyes), but it is impossible - " mat a hand» ( foot, portfolio).
Invalid values, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined. The first are implemented only in sustainable (phraseomeological) combinations: sworn enemy, dusty friend (It is impossible to change places the elements of these phrases).
Syntactically caused values Words are implemented only if it performs in a proposal unusual syntactic function. So, words log, oak, hat, Speaking in the role of the nominal part of the composite tag, get values \u200b\u200b" stupid man"; "stupid, odd man"; "sluggish, badless person, stretching". V. V. Vinogradov, for the first time allocated this type of values, called them functional-syntactically determined. These values \u200b\u200bare always figurative and according to the nomination method relate to the number of portable values.
As part of the syntactically determined values \u200b\u200bof the word allocate values constructive-limitedwhich are implemented only in a specific syntactic design. For example, a word vortex With a direct value of the "impact circular wind movement" in the design with a noun in the form of a genitive case receives a figurative value: whirlwind events - "rapid development of events."
4. By the nature of the functions performed Lexical values \u200b\u200bare divided into two types: nominative , the purpose of which is the nomination, the recording of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive synonymicwhich predominantly have an emotional and evaluation (connotative) feature. For example, in phrase a tall man word tallindicates a big height; This is its nominative meaning. And words long, long in conjunction with the word humannot only indicate a big growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive synonymic value and stand in a number of expressive synonyms for a neutral word tall.
5. By the nature of the connections of some values \u200b\u200bwith others In the lexical language system can be allocated:
1) autonomous The meanings with which the words possess are relatively independent in the language system and denoting mainly specific subjects: table, theater, flower;
2) correlate The values \u200b\u200bthat are inherent in the words are opposed to each other for any signs: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,
3) determined Values, i.e. Such, "which are due to the values \u200b\u200bof other words, as they represent their stylistic or expressive options ...". For example: nag (Wed. Stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), beautiful, wonderful, gorgeous (cf. good).
In this way, the modern typology of lexical values \u200b\u200bin its basis has, firstly, the conceptual and subject relationships of words (i.e. paradigmatic relationship), secondly, word-forming (or derivative) the links of words, thirdly, the attitude of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). The study of the type of lexical values \u200b\u200bhelps to understand the semantic structure of the word, to penetrate the systemic communications deeper in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.
MORPHOLOGY
Section of the science of language learning how to express grammatical expressions, patterns of changing words, grammatical classes of words and inherent grammatical categories.
The concept of grammatical meaning
A generalized value that is regularly expressed in the language typed means - glokaya Couzdress Shto Bokra and Curly Stronka
Signs of grammatical values
Abstract
Regularity
Compelling
Whole class prevalence
Close list
Languages \u200b\u200bdiffer in which values \u200b\u200bare chosen in them as grammatical
Types of grammatical values
1) Nominative - reflect off-language validity (reflects reality)
2) Syntax - Not related to off-language reality, they only reflect the ability of this word formation to be combined with other words (reflect the features of the combination (nouns))
Methods for expressing grammatical values
1) Synthetic - grammatical importance with affixes. ( Gully - past time, male genus)
Supploctivism - expression of grammatical knowledge by means of exchanges ( person people )
2) Analytical - Using official words ( if - subjunctive mood)
For the Russian language, both methods are characterized.
Grammatical shape and word
Grammatical form - Language sign in which grammatical significance finds its regular expression. In speech in specific statements, the word is in one of its grammatical forms.
Foodform - Word worth in any grammatical form.
Morphological paradigm
Morphological paradigm words - system of grammatical forms of one word
wood ― 24, table- 12 components
Full paradigm - Includes the entire set of forms characteristic of this part of speech.
Excess paradigm - has overall components ( masha-Mahai)
The youth - 6, incomplete, pants - 6, incomplete.
The concept of grammatical category
Grammar forms are combined into grammatical categories.
The shape of the singular + shape of the plural \u003d grammatical category of the number
Types of grammatical categories
Binary / non-binary
Divinence / Non-Mercency
The problem of speech parts in
Studying the question of the number of speech parts in one language or another is back to antique grammar.
When selecting parts of speech, you can use different approaches. In Russian grammar of the XXI and XX centuries several approaches were formed:
1) Formal - the main criteria of the classification are the characteristics of the opinion, a set of grammatical characteristics.
2) synthetic function of the word
3) logical, lexico-semantic (general studio value of the word
In modern rustic, the classification of speech parts takes into account several approaches at once:
Part of speech - class of words, which is characterized by:
2) Common set of grammatical categories
3) General syntax functions
4) word formation features.
Several options for modern classification of speech parts
1) School grammar - 10 parts of speech
1. The grammar 80 also presents a classification of 10 parts of speech. Speech Conventional Parts - noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, adverb, verb
Service - Preposition, Union, Particle, Arctic
2) A.N. Tikhonov
Conventional - noun, adjective, communion, numeral, pronoun, verb, verbality, adverb, state category.
Service - pretext, union, particle,
Interjection
Onomatopoeia
Modal (obviously, of course probably)
Any classification of speech parts is always the result of compromises between different approaches.
Significant parts of speech in rose
NOUN
Part of speech, which means the subject and performs this value in grammatical categories of kind, numbers, case, case, index / inantence
Lexico-grammatical discharges of nouns.
A group of words that show the originality in the expression of certain grammatical categories.
First level of membership
At the first level of membership, all nouns can be divided into 2 groups:
1) Own - Call individual subjects
Name "Bolshevik"
Have either only the form ST, or only PL
2) Mental - Call the subject by belonging to a particular class.
Next level of membership
- Real
1) Special values \u200b\u200b- denote a homogeneous mass of a substance that can be divided into parts, but cannot be counted ( milk)
2) grammatical features: only one form of the number
3) word formation - most - not derived
In speech, real noun, having only the form of an average number, in some cases can form a plural form ( dry wine)
The meaning of the noun is changing (variety, count)
- Collective
a combination of persons or objects as one indivisible whole (youth , studentism). All collective nouns have only forms of the singular. Collective nouns derivatives as a rule. It is necessary to distinguish from specific nouns people, Class, Group, Detachment, Tabun.
Real and collective closely related to each other. Sometimes it is difficult to answer the question of real or collective. Sometimes even talk about real-collective (dust)
- Distracted (abstract)
Have only the form of the only number. Very many derivatives. In some cases, nouns can stand in the form of a plural ( joy of life, happy dreams, annual readings) Since there is a change in the value of nouns.
- Nouns common kind
Show the originality of the expression of the grammatical category. Bore, sweet tooth. The main feature - in different contexts there is a female, then a male race. These are nouns with Flexia A, most often of the spoken style, the names are abbreviated - Sasha, Zhenya, Valya. Sometimes relate some unlock nouns as visati.. With existing common kinds you can not confuse doctor, teacher, officerwhich may be called female people, but the words themselves remain male.
- Specific noun
words calling the considered objects that can be presented separately and subjected to an account. Have two forms of numbers, are the standard of the noun as part of speech. However, a small group of specific nouns has only a form of a plural. ( sani.)
Mid-mindedness
Independence / Inanimateness
The main rule is in the plural of V.P. \u003d P.P - Animate, V.P. \u003d I.P. - Inanimate.
The rule is formed for a plural, since the most clearly grammatical category of the number is expressed in a plural. For two groups of noun male genus ( student, watch) The rule works in the singular.
In Russian, lexical and grammatical animation can not coincide. There are also nouns that are fluctuations in the expression of animation - inanimity. I see dolls - I see dolls. There are nouns that are in one value for animate, in the other - no. Stars. The youth - Outside the grammatical category, since there is no multiple number.
In school grammar talk about men's, female, middle way.
The zaliznyak suggested the fourth race - a pair, words with a form of only a plural. ( gate, watch). Suggested talking about 7 agreed classes:
1 - M.R. Need.
2 - M.R. one
3 - Zh.R. Need.
4 - Zh.R. one
5 - cf.Rean.
6 - cfr.
7 - pair.
The genus is expressed by the morphological, syntactic and lexico-semantic way.
Morphological - expression of the grammatical value of the genus with the help of flexions. This method is customary to be called inconsistent, as amonymy endings may have the significance of different clans. Table, daughter.
Syntactic - Expression of the genus through the form of the word consented with the nouns. In addition to the agreed words, such a function can be performed for the forms of the taught last time or in the subjunctive
Lexico-semantic - based on the ratio of grammatical value of the genus and lexical floor values. This method is relevant only for a small number of nouns, calling people. For these nouns, the value of the genus is nominative. For all other syntax.
Sometimes the value of the genus is determined by the lexical value of the floor, also in some zonimes.
Singular
1) the main value is the meaning of unity, that is, an indication of one subject
2) generalized-collective value - the shape of the singular indicates a plurality of items understood as a totality. During the session, the student is resting
3) Distribution \\ Distribution - the unique form indicates an item that is simultaneously in several persons. Open the tutorial on ... page.
Plural
1) The main value is the value of a separate set. From 2 to the set.
2) A collective set - the form of a plural indicates a combination of people, combined according to any sign. He lived among the British
3) a hyperbolic set - indicates the intentional elimination of a particular unit such can be observed in two cases.
Indicates the importance of the subject We arrived to us - Daughter
For the expression of reproach, censure We did not study at universities
4) Continuous set - the value of durability, a special length, intensity. Circle of snow and ice
The question of the case.
The case-value is the value associated with the expression of the meaning of nouns to other words in the phrase or offer.
Currently highlighted types of case values:
1) Subject value
2) object value
3) Determined
4) circumstance
5) Some scientists allocated a complete / adding value.
These values \u200b\u200bare not enshrined at the form of a specific case.
1) Subject value - The value of the real figure, the carrier of the feature or state. People walk down the street. Students cold
2) Object value - The value of the object ratio to the action that applies to this subject. We are drinking tea
Object value can be different types:
The value of the direct object. Real object. To fish
Internal object. Object speech, thoughts, feelings. Remember a trip.
Object addressee. I read a lecture to students.
Object tool. Pack glue
Object mediator. Pass the parcel through the conductor
There are other types of objects.
3) Determinent value - The value of the nouns, which is characterized by an object according to any sign:
Self-definition Girl in a hat. Brick house.
Predicative-determination My brother Krasavets
4) the circumstantial value is the value of the noun, which characterizes actions or a sign in terms of measures, time and so on.
1) temporary - Return in May.
2) the value of the place - have a walk in the forest
3) Causal - cry from for mistakes
4) Conditional - when flying be careful
5) the value of the goal - send for a doctor
6) measures and degrees - breaking down the throat
7) SEEDS - contrary to the advice, he left
8) image and method of action - sing bass
5) Eccentricity - The value of the replenishment of informatively incomplete units in the proposal. He heard a chatter (he heard - not fighters). His name was Vanya (his name was - not.)
What significance expresses the case of influences several factors: it is the form of the very noun, and its meaning, and the form and meaning of the word with which the noun is connected, and the presence / absence of the pretext and the nature of the preposition.
ADJECTIVE
- part of speech that means not a procedural sign of the subject and expresses this value in grammatical categories of kind, numbers, case, as well as categories of degrees of comparison and completeness of brevity
Form of comparative degree
Indicates a large or smaller compared to a sign of a sign.
FSS can be synthetic and analytic.
Synthetic - It is formed using three suffixes: e, it, neck ( louder, whiter, more) Product - it. A simple form of a comparative degree is not formed from the adjective with SC suffixes, submitted evaluation suffixes ( mustic), from adjectives with suffixes, Yusch (Transfer), l ( experienced), from complex adjectives ( longworthy), with the prefix not ( not easy). There are other limitations.
Analytical - It is formed using auxiliary words more and less. G.80 is missing.
The value of the form of comparison degrees.
A comparative degree (comparative) - has two main values.
1) a sign inherent in one subject to a greater or lesser extent than another. Cat smarter dog
2) a sign of the same subject in one situation is presented to a greater or lesser extent than in another. Winter this year is colder
Analytical form has fewer education restrictions.
The form is a simple comparative degree, as a rule, is part of the taent. Analytical can be also a sure and definition.
Forms of excellent degree
Traditionally, the value of forms is excellent degree is defined as the maximum degree of manifestation of the feature.
The form of an excellent degree is also formed by the synthetic and analytical method.
Simple - Eish, Aish. Composite - the most, most, most, all (total) + synth. Comparative degree form ( more beautiful than all).
Advanced degree conformity, having the highest degree of manifestation of a sign called superlative
However, the forms of excellent degree may be of just a great extent. (Elative) Beautiful building. (not a beautiful building in the city)
Most modern linguists do not believe that adjectives have forms of excellent degree.
For the formation of synthetic forms, the same limitations are relevant as for the formation of a comparative degree forms. The form of an excellent degree formed by the word most, in its composition adjective to a positive degree. The most shortest road, the most closely, the best option - an exception.
NUMERAL
In the language, the idea of \u200b\u200bquantity can be transmitted by different means: the grammatical category of the number, with the help of nouns ( a hundred, dozen), as well with special words, called numerical.
Part of whether the speech is numerical - an ambiguous question. In school practice, quantitative, and ordinal, and collective, and fractional numerals include quantitative. In grammar 80, only quantitative and collective and collective are numeral. The ordinal belongs to the adjective, and fractional are considered as a combination of words belonging to different parts of speech. It also includes such words as much and little. The concept of Tikhonov eliminates a lot and is little, but relates fractional numerical, quantitative and collective numerals. The concept of Panov - ordinal, and quantitative and ordinal numerals are the forms of the same word.
The concept emitting in the composition of numerical quantitative, sequence and collective numerals.
Numeral - Part of speech, denoting the number and order of objects with a score and expressing these values \u200b\u200bin grammatical categories of the case (consistently) and in grammatical categories of the genus and number (not consistently). In the composition of numerical, three lexico-grammatical discharges are distinguished:
1) Quantitative
2) ordinal
3) collective
Some linguists allocate only quantitative and ordinal, and collective refer to quantitative.
In structure, all numerals are divided into simple, having one root ( forty, fifth, five), complicated with two root ( fifty) and composite consisting of two or more words ( thirty five, three thousand thirty)
Lexico-grammar discharges of quantitative numerals:
Quantitative numerals denote:
1) abstract number ( k 8 + 3 will be 11)
2) the amount as a sign of the subject ( two years, five books)
3) the place of the subject with the score ( house six)
Grammar features:
Never change in numbers (outside the grammatical category of numbers)
Changes on cases, but the pumidative case does not express either a subject or object value, but only indicates the syntactic connection with numeral with nouns.
Do not change by childbirth with the exception of words one one one, two or two.
Synthetic features:
From 1 to 4 in nominative and vinegenic cases are combined with nouns in the singular
In the nominative and vinegenic case, they control nouns ( three cups, five tables), in the rest of the case, consistent with nouns
Features of some quantitative numbers:
One differently considered linguists, sometimes not refer to numeral and called plain adjective or counting and quantitative adjective (grammar 70), some believe that this is numerant only in composite numerals. The discrepancies are explained by the fact that the word one behaves not as other numerals: it changes according to childbirth and by numbers, is always consistent with the nouns. In addition, in addition to quantitative value, the word one has a value of some, individual, etc. Thus, the word one behaves as a numeral only in composite numeral. In all other cases, a placed adjective.
A thousand, a million, a billion in school grammar - numeral, and grammar 80 unequivocally refers to nouns, as they change in numbers. There is a point of view according to which these words makes sense to call nouns only in cases where they or are not called the exact number (million problems), or used in the form of a plural.
The usage rule with the pretext of:
- Two, and a half, three, four, ninety, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred Used in the form of a vinitive case that coincides with the very famous. They took two hundred rubles.
The rest have variant form ( they took five rubles or took five rubles)
One is always in the form of a denational case ( distributed one pencil)
Lexico-grammatical discharge of collective numerals:
Are formed from quantitative with the help of suffixes O, J, ( two, two) and e, er ( shtyra, four)
The norm limits the number of collective numerals near two to ten, but others meet. Traditionally, it is believed that the value of collective numerals is the designation of the number as a totality. But many linguists do not agree with this statement and believe that the collective numeral values \u200b\u200bdo not differ from quantitative.
Grammar features:
Outside the grammatical category of the number
Outside the grammatical category
Padege does not express importance, but indicates a combination with a noun
Synthetic features:
Combination with noun: collective numerals can be combined with noun male genus or with the words of general kind ( two friends, Three Zewak), but can not be combined with noun feminine clan.
Can be combined with noun Pluralia Tantum ( two hours, Three days)
Collective numerals are combined with nouns children guys, people, faces.
Can be combined with nouns with no adulthood ( seven Kozdyat)
Can be combined with substantive adjectives ( two patients)
Can be combined with personal pronouns ( there are three of us)
Some relate both, both to a collective numerical, but they do not have a numerical value, therefore it is advisable to consider pronouncements. In addition, these words have other rules of combination with nouns.
Lexico-grammatical discharge of ordinal numbers:
Call the sequence number of the subject at the score.
Grammar features:
May vary on cases, numbers, childbirth
Always consistent with nouns
Splitty:
Ordinal inclined as relative adjectives (adjective type)
The remaining injections of endings differ 6 types of declension:
3) 50, 60, 70, 80
4) 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900
5) 40, 90, 100, and a half, a half
6) Collective
PRONOUN
On the one hand, they are used as independent words, on the other hand, they do not call phenomena, items, but only indicate them. Many linguists believe that the pronoun appeared earlier.
Featuring signs:
1) For pronouns, the correlation is characterized by the same word with a wide range of surrounding items. Direction in each individual case can mean different faces and different subjects
2) Functions:
Diactic - Note on the condition of the speech act. The correlation of what is referred to with the terms of the speech act and its participants. I write (writes speaking), I am talking, you are listening, he is a third party.
The pronouns of the first and second person sending to the speaker (I, we) or to the listening thing (you, you). Also, the index pronouns sending to the object on which the indicative gesture of the speaking (one, this, that is, that ..)
Anaforic - Calculation of this message with other messages. This is a reference function to something known. Can replace the names of objects, actions and even entire proposals in the text. My brother came and said he was leaving. N.ikolai gathered and came out. Petya did the same thing. I will write him letters if necessary.
Perform:
Personal pronouns of a third party
Indicative pronouns
Returns (yourself, each friend)
Relative pronouns
Emotional-valued function ― Your Olga (at the end of the letter)
efformism - Taba function - one question about "this"
Classification of pronouns.
1) Traditional.
- Personal - indicate the participants of the speech act.
- Returns - ourselves. This pronoun does not have a nominative case, and this indicates that the object or destination of the action coincides with the act of action.
- Pictures - belonging subject to the first, second or third person. ( my, yours, his, his (belonging to what is called to be subject to) his, her, their- Personal pronouns with the feature of the attractiveness
- Indexing (that, this one, this, this) - allocate objects or signs associated with the participants of the speech act or speech space.
- Determinatory - indicate signs of generalizations ( any, everyone, any, all) or excretory ( myself, very)
- Questionative (who, what, what, whose whose)
- Relative coincide with questionnaires, but they are fundamentally different from them the syntactic function, acting as union words - The boy broke the vase that was standing on the table.
- Uncertain - Affixes are not, postfix is, - -libe, who, Affixoid Core indicates something unknown by the speaker
- Negative - Not and nor. Lack of objects, signs, circumstances.
The traditional classification does not take into account the pronounter of each other. This pronouction is often distinguished into a special discharge, called mutually returnable.
2) Functional and semantic classification:
Personal, assignatory, return + each other, excretory-indexed ( this one, that, such), excretory-amps ( myself, very), questionative, relative, indefinite, generalized and distribution ( each, any, all, all), Negative.
3) Formal grammatical classification:
1) nouns pronouns - indicate a face or subject, the case express consistently, the genus and the number is not consistently (personal, return, some question purposes ( who what), some are negative ( nobody, nothing), some indefinite ( someone, someone)
2) proponation of adjectives - indicate a sign, express importance in the dependent grammatical categories of the genus, number, case. ( yours, mine, yours, ours, some, some)
3) number pronouns - indicate an indefinite amount, outside the grammatical category of the number and have the same features of the combination with nouns. ( how much how much)
4) proponation of Nashiai - unchangeable pronouns ( here, there, from there, somewhere, someday...) Some linguists refer to adverbs.
Features of declination
The declination of personal pronouns is characterized by changing the foundation in indirect cases. I, me, I, we, us.
Proponion he she it When combined with the pretext, there are forms with the initial phoem n. He has, with her, about them
The prisoner itself does not have a form of a nominative case
The grammatical features of other pronouns, namely adjective, impossible, numeral, completely repeat the features of the corresponding part of speech.
VERB
The verb in Russian is opposed to names, as it has a set of grammatical categories. Indicates also a sign of the subject, but this is a special feature - a sign as a process.
Verb - Part of speech, denoting procedural sign and expresses this value in grammatical categories of the species, pledge, inclination, time, etc. The main function is a fag.
Paradigm verb
As more complicated than the name paradigm.
3 groups of verb forms.
1) Infinitives - the initial form of the verb, but it is very conditionally.
2) Hidden forms (predicative)
3) unqualified forms (attribute) communion and verbalia. Not all scientists belong to the verb.
Each of these groups is characterized by a special set of grammatical categories.
Verb conjugations
Hiding - usually used in the following situations:
1) the leasing of the verb is a change in the verb in a narrow understanding of persons and numbers in the present or future simple time, in a wide understanding of the change in the verb at times, inclination, persons, numbers, and so on.
2) The hidngth is also understood as the system of verb flexions in the present or future simple time.
Depending on which flexions are represented, all verbs can be divided into two large classes: the first and second lifting.
Verb 1GO Hiding - nest
I carry, you carry, he, she, it carries,
We carry, you carry, they carry
Verb 2gings - decide
I will decide, he will decide
We solve, you decide, they will decide
In addition to flexions, the verbs of the first and second lifting differ from each other with features of alternation: the verbs of the second rigging alternation appears only in the form of the first person of the singular number ( love - love), in the verbs of the first auction, the alternation appears in four forms - the second and third face of the singular, and the first and second person of the plural number ( bake - stuffing, stove, bake).
Glages 1 and 2 lunas differ from each other Final Foundation (ending), in the verbs of the 1GO Hinding The basis of the present or future simple time can end on the hissing - jump, on j - blush, on a stereo-solid consonant - carry, the verbs of the second rigs in this case They can also end with hissing, on j, and on a steam-soft consonant.
What do you need to determine the lifting?
1) Put the verb in the form of 3 faces. numbers
2) We look shock if the end
3) If the end is shock, then the verb is hidden on persons and numbers
4) If the end is unstressed, we return to the infinitive
5) if the final infinitive is on it, then 2, if not on it, 1
6) Remember whether it is not an exception? ( shave, drag, drive, keep, breathe, offend)
In the language there are also various hidden verbs - want, run, honor (honor, tight),
Glazhlovy word
The system of verbal word is characterized by greater complexity compared with the name of names. For each Russian verb, it is necessary to establish its belonging: a) to the ringing class and b) to the type of tie
Criterion Maslov
The species steam occurs then and only if the verbs are identical.
Special diagnostic contexts:
1) for the verbs of the perfect species. He returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door ...
2) for the verbs of the imperfect species. Description of repeating events. Every year at this time he returns from a business trip, rises along the stairs, opens the door ...
3) for the verbs of an imperfect look. Narration in the present historical. He returns yesterday from a business trip, rises along the stairs, opens the door ...
Thus, it can be concluded that these vapors of verbs are specious verb pairs, since the verbs in each pair indicate the same event. In contexts, two and three use of the verbs of the perfect species are excluded, thus speaking should use a verb with a identical value, but a imperfect look.
Dyavid verbs
Watch, knock, to teacher and so on. It is either a perfect species, or not perfect, but the pairs do not have - unpaired verbs. PERFECTIVE OF TANTANUM - Perfect View, Tantumum Imperfect - Imperfect View
There are also bivide verbs among the unpaired verbs.
Bivid verbs - in different contexts can be the verbs of the imperfect species perfect and verbs.
When Alexey married, he immediately went to Paris. When Alexey married, there were 100 people guests.
Among the bivid verbs are angular Russian verbs a little ( telegraphs, asphalt, hospitalize)
The type of bival verbs can only be determined by context.
The formation of forms of the suffering pledge in Russian.
They are formed differently in the verbs of the perfect and not perfect species.
The verbs of the perfect species, the form of an affected pledge is formed, as a rule, with the help of a forming postfix.
The verbs of the perfect form of the form of the suffering pledge are formed, as a rule, by an analytical way with the help of auxiliary verb to be, in an appropriate personal form and a brief suffering communion.
Exceptions: It was loved all. This book has read very easily.
The verbs in the form of a persistent pledge can be changed at times, persons, numbers, and so on.
The house was built by workers last year.
Forms of present
Only the verbs of the imperfect form are formed! Forms of present, do not have special suffixes in Russian, the end of verbs with the meaning of one or another person and the number ( i say you say) also serve as a formal expression of the value of the present time if they are joined by the basics of the same species.
The form of the present can express several values.
The first meaning of this form is called present actual .
The form of the present time in this case indicates an action that coincides with the moment of speech. I'm reading a lecture now.
The second basic value of the form of the present time - real irrelevant . In these cases, indicates that the action is not associated with the moment of speech. I'm well swimming. It has several subtypes: extended present - He has long liked her; constant continuous - Moscow costs 7 hills; etc.
Communion and Temploying
It occupy a special place in the morphological paradigm of the verb, since they combine the properties of the verb and other parts of speech - respectively, adjectives and adverbs.
On this basis, the communion is sometimes derived from the verb paradigm and are included in the adjectives, and the verbalism is to the composition of the shortcoming (Peshkovsky) or are interpreted as independent parts of speech (Tikhonov).
Participle - "Hybrid" form of verb, which has signs of verb and adjective.
As a verb of the Communion manifests itself with categories of collateral, type and time, lexico-grammatical signs of transition and return, in addition, the communion fully retain the features of the verb control: love children - loving children, lead the factory - governing the plant.
Grammar meanings - Part of the value (content) of the word or suggestion receiving a mandatory formal expression in the composition of the word or suggestion.
In the language there are two types of linguistic units: lexical and grammatical. The lexical meaning of the word is the subject of lexiki, and grammatical importance is the subject of grammar. Lexical significance is a specific, subject value. Several simplifying, it can be said that this is a reflection of a fragment of the surrounding world in the Word (see the lexical meaning of the word).
The difference between the lexical value from grammatical consists more than the ability of the latter, in its obligatory and regular, fairly standard formal expression in the language. The grammatical value is more abstract: it does not call items, signs, actions, etc., and classifies words, combines them into groups of specific features, binds words in syntactic structures. Grammar abstraction is a distraction from a specific value, the exhaustion of grammatical signs and relationships characterizing the whole class of words. Each part of speech is characterized by a specific set of grammatical values. For example, the name of the noun is the value of the genus, the number and case, the verb is the value of time, inclination, etc.
Grammatical values \u200b\u200bare mandatory in the language: this means that they are expressed in the Word or offer certainly, regardless of the desire of the speaker. For example, reporting about any event that speaks Russian must note whether the event now happens now, it happened before or it can only occur in the future, i.e., indicate the verb time. The name of the noun is necessarily refers to male, female or medium kind, has the form and casement form, etc.
Grammatical significance is always formally expressed in the composition of the word or suggestion. Methods for expressing grammatical value may be different.
1. In Russian, grammatical values \u200b\u200bare most often expressed with the end of the end (Flexia): Cat - cats (number), cat - cat (case), I go - you go (face), etc.
2. Sometimes the grammatical value can be expressed by alternating sounds: to call - to call (category of the species), run - run (category of ignition).
3. Grammar values \u200b\u200bcan also be expressed using strokes: cut - cut (value value).
4. Grammatical values \u200b\u200bcan be expressed in one paradigm of forms from different bases: people - people (category of numbers), I am (Category of case).
5. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by repeating the word: good-kind (excellent degree of adjective).
6. The grammatical value can be expressed by official words: I will read (the value of the future time), I would read (the value of the subjunctive outer).
7. The grammatical meaning can be expressed using the word order in the sentence: Mother loves her daughter, the chair scratches the table (subject-object relations are made to the subject and addition).
8. The grammatical value can be expressed by intonation: it came. He came?
The grammatical significance has standard and regular means of expression, that is, in most cases, homogeneous grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed as the same (standard) morphems. For example, the efficient case of nouns of the 1st decline will be submitted by the ending (s): girl, bird, dad, boys, etc., and the efficient case of the nouns of the 2nd declination - the end-of-one (s): Boy, hammer, field, etc. The grammatical meaning is expressed, as a rule, regularly, i.e. forming paradigms - samples of the semination in which you can substitute any word of the same grammatical characteristic and get the right form (see paradigm). Therefore, the grammatical system is easily structured and can be represented in the form of tables (for example, tables for the declination of nouns or hideings of verbs).
, syntactic structures and finding your regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms . In the area of \u200b\u200bmorphology, these are common meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the value of the substation in nouns, procedural verbs), as well as the particular values \u200b\u200bof the word forms and words in general, opposed to each other within the framework of morphological categories (see Grammatical category) (For example, the values \u200b\u200bof a time or other time, face, numbers, genus). In the syntax area, this value predication (peculiar to the proposal of the settlement reported in a particular time and objective and modal plan), as well as the various relations of the components of phrases and proposals as abstract grammatical samples (in distraction from their lexical filling): the values \u200b\u200bof the semantic subject, an object, one or another patient qualifier ( local, temporal, causal, target, etc.); formalized in certain language components of the subject-straatic structure of the sentence (see Actual sentence of sentence); expressed by the union bond relationships complex offer .
In the system of s. They are objectified (through the concept of concepts) knowledge of objects and phenomena of reality, their links and relationships. So, the concept of action (in a broad sense - as a procedural sign) is abstractly revealed in the overall value of the verb and in the system of more private categorical values \u200b\u200binherent in the verb (time, view, pledge, etc.); The concept of quantity is in the city of h. numbers (category of numbers, the name is numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); Various relationships of objects to other subjects, actions, properties - in the system of the city, expressed by case and pretexts.
Differ referential (non-associate) G. Z., reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of non-language reality, for example, quantitative, spatial, temporal, values, values \u200b\u200bof tools or manufacturer of action, and relational (syntactic) g. and proposals (for example, connecting, interconnecting values \u200b\u200bof allied structures) or on the connection of the bases as part of complex words (connecting word-forming value). Special character has G. Z., reflecting relation talking As we are talking about, or to the interlocutor: subjective modality, subjective assessment, politeness, ease, etc. Russian Language E.V. Klobkov distinguishes G. Z. Nominative (for example, the values \u200b\u200bof numerical forms of the noun: "House" - "houses"), expressive (for example, a quantitative and assessment value of the Paddal forms of the "people!" type, "squeal!") and interpretative (they possess, for example, correlate forms of valid and the persistent pledge; Wed: "The artist writes a portrait of a famous scientist" and "Portrait of a famous scientist is written by the artist").
By g. Word-formation values \u200b\u200bas generalized values, expressed by intraper means of the motivated words of a particular part of speech, can be attributed. These are the values \u200b\u200bof mutational (for example, a sign of a feature, a manufacturer of action), transposition (for example, a certain action or a feature), modifications (for example, gradation - indicating this or that degree of manifestation).
G. opposed to lexical values \u200b\u200b(see Lexical meaning words), devoid of regular (standard) expression and not necessarily having abstracted nature, but are closely related to them, sometimes limited in their manifestation of certain lexical groups of words.
