The topmost layer of the ocean (UPU + seasonal thermocline) requires a much more detailed description. The following paragraph will be devoted to this issue. [...]
In more importantly dynamically wording using the frequency of the Vyassyl Brent n, the density jump layer is stratified noticeably more stable (L С-10 2 C-1) than the troposphere as a whole, in which DT / DGB 6.5 ° C / km and l / 10-2 C "1, although less stable than strong atmospheric inversions (TU" 1.7-10-1 C-1). With the widespread spread of the leap of a leap of density in the ocean and the rare of strong inversions in the atmosphere, this explains the much broader distribution of internal waves in the ocean compared to the atmosphere. [...]
The most active top layer of the ocean where dominates live substance Plankton, up to 150-200 m. Pollutants are exposed to the effects of living organisms. The latter bind a huge amount of dissolved and suspended substances. There is no such powerful bio filtration system on land. [...]
A peculiar zone of the World Ocean, characterized by high fish productivity, is an upwelling, i.e. Watering from depth to the upper layers of the ocean, as a rule, on the Western shores of contingents. [...]
Heater - Warm water from the upper layers of the ocean. The highest temperature of the water is observed in the Persian Gulf in August - more than 33 ° C (and the highest water temperature is fixed in the Red Sea - plus 36 ° C). But at the maximum temperature, it is impossible to calculate the transmitter: it is found in limited areas of the world ocean, and the extensive areas have the temperature of the surface layer of about 25 ° C. This is a fairly high temperature at which many liquids boil. D'Asonval suggested applying ammonia as a working fluid - fluid with temperature; Boosene minus 33.4 "C, which will be boiled well ■ at 25 ° C. At normal temperature (20 ° C) ammonia - colorless gas with a caustic smell. When the pressure increases, the ammonia gas is transformed again into liquid. At 20 ° C for this, pressure must be increased to 8.46 atm, but at 5 ° C - significantly less. [...]
Energote of the World Ocean are minimal structural components involved in the formation of a large-scale heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. Nim, "¿20% of the World Ocean Square, they are responsible for" 40% of the total heat exchange in the ocean-sushi ocean system. These are the areas of maximum mismatch between the thermal and humidity fields of the top layer of the ocean and the planetary boundary layer of the atmosphere: it is here that the intensity of work in coordinating these fields is maximum. And although we argue that the EAAO is characteristic structures in large-scale fields, this does not mean that their spatial location is rigidly fixed, but the intensity is constant. The same areas are inherent in the maximum ranges of heat flowability, which indicates that they serve as the most informative waters for monitoring the condition of the climate system. That is, all of them can not be in active condition at the same time, but it is in these areas that the most active local heat exchange is formed in some polycyclic sequence. [...]
As a result of these factors, the top layer of the ocean is usually mixed well. It is so called - mixed. Its thickness depends on the time of year, the strength of the wind and the geographical area. For example, in the summer, the thickness of the mixed layer on the Black Sea is only 20-30 m. And in the Pacific Ocean near the equator, it was discovered (expired at the research vessel "Dmitry Mendeleev") a mixed layer with a thickness of about 700 m. From the surface to a depth of 700 M was layered with a layer of warm and transparent water with a temperature of about 27 ° C. This area of \u200b\u200bthe Pacific Ocean in its hydrophysical properties is similar to Sargassovo Sea in the Atlantic Ocean. In winter, on the Black Sea, the mixed layer is 3-4 times the thicker, its depth comes to 100-120 m. Such a big difference is due to intense stirring in winter time: The stronger the wind, the more excitement on the surface and is stronger. Such a layer of jump is called even seasonal, since the depth of the layer has depends on the season of the year. [...]
Upwelling [English Upwelling] - rise of water from depth to the upper layers of the ocean (sea). Normally on the west banks of the continents, where the winds drive out surface waters from the coast, and their place is occupied by the cold mass of water rich in biogenic substances. [...]
The exchange of carbon dioxide is also between the atmosphere and the ocean. In the upper ocean layers, a large amount of carbon dioxide is dissolved in equilibrium with atmospheric. In total, the hydrosphere contains about 13-1013 tons of dissolved carbon dioxide, and in the atmosphere - 60 times less. Life on Earth and gas balance of the atmosphere is maintained by relatively small amounts of carbon, participating in a small cycle and contained in vegetable tissues (5-1011 tons) in animal tissues (5-109 tons). Carbon cycle in biosphere processes is presented. 2. [...]
In general, it should be noted that the amplitude of the annual fluctuations in the temperature in the upper layers of the ocean is not more than 10-15 ° C, in the continental waters -30-35 ° C. [...]
Oxygen A. V., Semenchenko B. A., Tuzhilkin V.S. On the factors of the variability of the structure of the upper layer of the ocean in the tropics // Meteorology and Hydrology, No. 4, 1983, p. 84-89. [...]
The biosphere is concentrated mainly in the form of a relatively thin film on the surface of the sushi and mainly (but not exclusively) in the upper layers of the ocean. It cannot function without close interaction with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and the pedosphere without living organisms simply would not exist. [...]
Other integral indicators are possible. So, for modeling the distribution of Sirah in the Pacific Ocean, the temperature in the upper layer of the ocean was the temperature of the ocean, since the distribution of flows, aquatic masses, salinity and other hydrological and hydrochemical indicators of the North-West part of the Pacific Ocean is closely correlated with the distribution of water temperature of the upper layer (Cashkin, 1986 ). [...]
Heating from above (contact with the water penetrating into it) and the despatch (drop-down precipitation, the flow of rivers, ice melting) can only affect the very thin top layer of the ocean, total in tens of meters, because due to hydrostatic The stability of the heated or desalinated layer, it cannot be mixed with the underlying water, and the forced mixing created by the invigorating surface waves, Sleeping penetrates (mixing in turbulent spots formed in places of hydrodynamic instability of internal waves, on average very weakly and acts, apparently, extremely slow). [...]
If equation (4.9.2) or its equivalent shape with strokes in variables to integrate all over the ocean, then we obtain the same obvious contradiction, as in the case of the mechanical energy equation. On a large scale there is a tributary through the surface of the ocean (since the salinity of the surface is high where there is a flow of salt into the ocean, see, for example,), but the loss of salt due to diffusion is insignificant on a large scale. As in the case of energy, the transfer of salinity from one scale to another due to a nonlinear advective member in (4.3.8), a very small scale is made to the right side (4.9.2). According to the estimation, the rms salinity gradient in the upper bed of the ocean is 1000 times higher than the average gradient. [...]
Nitrogen compounds (nitrates, nitrites) are entered into plants organisms, participating in the formation of organic matter (amino acids, complex proteins). Part of the nitrogen compounds is carried out in the river, the sea penetrates underground water. From compounds dissolved in seawater, nitrogen is absorbed by water organisms, and after their dying, it moves to the depths of the ocean. Therefore, the concentration of nitrogen in the upper layers of the ocean increases markedly. [...]
Analysis of the reasons for the existing phase relationship between annual temperature fluctuations in air and water is based on the model interpretations of the annual stroke. As a rule, such models proceed from the heat transfer equation in which various authors with different degrees of completeness take into account the factors for the formation of cyclicity in the ocean and in the atmosphere. A. A. Bivovarov and Van Lan built a nonlinear model for the stratified ocean and took into account the volumetric absorption of radiant energy by the top layer of the ocean. The daily movement of the surface temperature of water and air is analyzed. The lag was obtained in the air temperature phase from the water temperature, which is not consistent with the empirical data, according to which the temperature of the water is ahead of the water temperature and in the daily course. [...]
Humine and steaaric acids that are common, which are common impurities of many sewage, also slowed down the formation of calcite. This inhibition is probably caused by the adsorption of an acid anion, since the ion forms of these compounds prevail under the experimental conditions. Sewes and Myers and Kwares found that stearic acid and other natural organic substances can be highly adsorbed by contact with sea water carbonate. Apparently, such adsorption explains the inhibition of calcium carbonate in the upper layers of the ocean. In the presence of stearic acid (1-1O-4 M), there is a slight degree, but a measurable reaction of crystallization (see Fig. 3.4), which shows that this acid does not fully inhibit the crystallization reaction as metaphosphate. [... ]
The second special experiment on the study of the synoptic variability of ocean currents ("Polygon-70") was held by the Soviet Oceanologists headed by the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences in February-September 1970 in the Northern Passatown area of \u200b\u200bthe Atlantic, where for six months there were continuous measurements of currents At 10 depths from 25 to 1500 m at 17 bouquet stations formed the cross with dimensions of 200x200 km centered at 16 ° C 14, 33 ° 30 W, and a number of hydrological filming was also made. [...]
The large-scale contrast of the heat pump in the ocean is much superior to both the potential energy of the level inclination and the energy of the density differentiation of water. The heat differences themselves, as a rule, are formed on large spaces and accompanied by smooth spatially extended movements of convective type. In unevenly heated waters with varying densities, there are horizontal gradients that can be sources of local movements. In such cases, part of the affordable potential energy passes. If, when calculating it proceeds from the difference in stocks potential energies two neighboring equal volumes with different densities in upper parts, For the whole ocean, we come to the estimate that was previously defined as the density differentiation energy, i.e., by 1018-79 J. The age of the upper layer of the ocean ("1000 m) is estimated for 10-20 years. From the comparison of the energy of the heat contrast of the ocean and the contrast of the flow of solar energy to the warm and cold waters of the ocean [(1-3) -1023 j / year], it follows that it is necessary for the accumulation of this contrast about 10-15 years. Then we can approximately accept that the main features of the density differentiation of the upper layer are formed in 10 years. The tenth of this energy is annually transmitted by mechanical movements of the ocean. Consequently, the annual energy flow as a result of the baroque instability approximately 1018 J. [...]
In 1905, the Swedish scientist V. Ekman created the theory of wind flow, which received a mathematical and graphic expression, known as Ekman Spiral. According to it, the flow of water should be directed at a right angle to the direction of the wind, with the depth of it so deviates the power of Coriolis, which begins to flow in the opposite wind direction. One of the consequences of the transfer of water, according to the theory of ecmena, is that the trade-stone winds cause the flow of flow directed to the north and south of the equator. To compensate the outflow, there is a rise of cold deep waters. That is why the surface water temperature at the equator is below 2-3 ° C than in the tropical areas adjacent to it. The slow lifting of deep waters in the upper layers of the ocean is called an upwelling, and lowering - downwards.
The main mass of the water membrane of the Earth form salted waters of the world ocean, covering 2 / s surface of the earth. Their volume is approximately 1379 €106 km3, while the volume of all the water sushi (including glaciers and groundwater to a depth of 5 km) - less than 90 °106 km3. Since oceanic water consists of about 93% of all the water of the biosphere, we can assume that their chemical composition determines the main features of the composition of the hydrosphere as a whole.
The modern chemical composition of the ocean is the result of its long-term change under the influence of the activities of living organisms. The formation of the primary ocean was due to the same process of degassing the solid of the planet, which led to the formation of the gas shell of the Earth. For this reason, the composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere is closely connected, their evolution also occurred interconnected.
As noted earlier, vapor and carbon dioxide prevailed among degassing products. From the moment the surface temperature of the planet fell below 100 ° C, the water pairs began to condense and form primary reservoirs. On the surface of the Earth, the process of water cycle arose, which marked the beginning of the cyclical migration of chemical elements in the dry-ocean-sushi system.
In accordance with the composition of the discharged gases, the first clusters of water on the surface of the planet were acidic, enriched mainly by the NS1, as well as HF, H3BO3, H2S. The water of the ocean passed many cyphans. Sour rains vigorously destroyed aluminosilicates, removing easily soluble cations - sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, which accumulated in the ocean. The cations gradually neutralized strong acids, and the water of an ancient hydrosphere acquired chlorine calcium composition.
Among the diverse transformation processes of degazed compounds, it was obvious that the activities of condensation of thermo-lithotrophic bacteria proceeded. The appearance of cyanobacterias inhabited in water that has protected them from detrimental ultraviolet radiation marked the beginning of photosynthesis and biogeochemical production of oxygen. Reduction due to photosynthesis of partial pressure CO2 contributed to the precipitation of the major masses of FE2 + carbonates, then Mg2 + and Ca3 +.
Free oxygen began to flow into the water of the ancient ocean. For a long period of time, restored and short-sided sulfur compounds, bivalent iron and manganese were oxidized. The composition of the oceanic water acquired a chloride sulfate composition close to modern.
Chemical elements in the hydrosphere are in a variety of forms. Among them are most characteristic of simple and complex ions, as well as molecules that are in a state of highly diluted solutions. The ions are common, sorption associated with particles of colloidal and subculoid sizes present in sea water as a thin suspension. The special group is the elements of organic compounds.
The total amount of dissolved compounds in sea water (salinity) in the surface layers of the oceans and the outskirts of the seas varies from 3.2 to 4%. In the intracontinental seas, salinity changes in broader limits. The average salinity of the oceans is adopted equal to 35%.
Back in the middle of the XIX century. Scientists have discovered a wonderful geochemical feature of the oceanic water: despite the oscillations of salinity, the ratio of main ions remains constant. The salt composition of the ocean is a kind of geochemical constant.
As a result of the persistent work of scientists of many countries, an extensive analytical material has been accumulated, which characterizes the content in the water of the seas and oceans is not only the main, but also scattered chemical elements. The most reasonable data on the mean values \u200b\u200b(clarks) of chemical elements in the water of the world's ocean is given in the reports of E.D. Goldberg (1963), A.P. Vinogradova (1967), B. Mason (1971), Horn (1972), A.P. Lisitsin (1983), K.N. Turkisa (1969). In tab. 4.1 The results are used mainly of the last two authors.
As can be seen from the given data, the main mass of dissolved compounds is chlorides of common alkaline and alkaline earth elements, less contains sulfates, even less hydrocarbonates. The concentration of scattered elements, the unit of measurement of which is the μg / l, for three mathematical orders of magnitude lower than in rocks. The range of crumbs of scattered elements reaches 10 mathematical orders, i.e. Approximately the same as in the earth's crust, but the ratio of elements is completely different. Spiritually dominated by bromine, strontium, boron and fluorine, the concentration of which is above 1000 μg / l. In significant quantities there are iodine, barium, their concentration exceeds 10 μg / l.
Table 4.1.
The content of soluble forms of chemical elements in the ocean.| Chemical element or ion | Average concentration | The ratio of concentration in the amount of salts to the Clark of the granite layer | Total mass, million tons | |
| in water, μg / l | in the amount of salts, 10 -4 % | |||
| C1 | 19 353 000,0 | 5529,0 | 3252,0 | 26513610000 |
| SO 4 2 - | 2 701 000,0 | 771,0 | - | 3700370000 |
| S. | 890000,0 | 254,0 | 63,0 | 1216300000 |
| NSO 3 - | 143000,0 | 41,0 | - | 195910000 |
| Na. | 10764000,0 | 3075,0 | 14,0 | 14746680000 |
| MG. | 1297000,0 | 371,0 | 3,1 | 1776890000 |
| SA | 408000,0 | 116,0 | 0,5 | 558960000 |
| TO | 387000,0 | 111,0 | 0,4 | 530190000 |
| Vg. | 67 300,0 | 1922,9 | 874,0 | 92 201 000 |
| Sr. | 8100,0 | 231,4 | 1,0 | 1 1 097 000 |
| IN | 4450,0 | 127,1 | 13,0 | 6 096 500 |
| SiO 2. | 6200,0 | 176,0 | - | 8494000 |
| SI | 3000,0 | 85,0 | 0,00028 | 4 1 10 000 |
| F. | 1300,0 | 37,1 | 0,05 | 1 781 000 |
| N. | 500,0 | 14,0 | 0,54 | 685 000 |
| R | 88,0 | 2,5 | 0,0031 | 120 560 |
| I. | 64,0 | 1,8 | 3,6 | 87690 |
| V. | 21,0 | 0,57 | 0,00084 | 28770 |
| MO | 10,0 | 0,29 | 0,22 | 13700 |
| Zn. | 5,0 | 0,14 | 0,0027 | 6850 |
| FE. | 3,4 | 0,097 | 0,0000027 | 4658 |
| U. | 3,3 | 0,094 | 0,036 | 4521 |
| As | 2,6 | 0,074 | 0,039 | 3562 |
| Al | 1,0 | 0,029 | 0,00000036 | 1370 |
| TI | 1,0 | 0,029 | 0,0000088 | 1370 |
| Cu. | 0,90 | 0,025 | 0,001 1 | 1233 |
| Ni. | 0,50 | 0,014 | 0,00054 | 685 |
| MN. | 0,40 | 0,011 | 0,000016 | 548 |
| CR | 0,20 | 0,0057 | 0,00017 | 274 |
| Hg. | 0,15 | 0,0043 | 0,130 | 206 |
| CD | 0,11 | 0,0031 | 0,019 | 151 |
| AG | 0,10 | 0,0029 | 0,065 | 137 |
| SE | 0,09 | 0,0026 | 0,019 | 123 |
| Co. | 0,03 | 0,00086 | 0,0012 | 41,1 |
| GA. | 0,03 | 0,00086 | 0,0012 | 41,1 |
| PB. | 0,03 | 0,00086 | 0,0012 | 41,1 |
| Zr. | 0,026 | 0,00070 | 0,0000041 | 34,0 |
| SN. | 0,020 | 0,00057 | 0,00021 | 27,4 |
| Au. | 0,011 | 0,00031 | 0,26 | 15,1 |
A part of the water in water - molybdenum, zinc, uranium, titanium, copper - has a concentration of 1 to 10 μg / l. The concentration of nickel, manganese, cobalt, chromium, mercury, cadmium is significantly lower - hundredths and tenths of the μg / l. At the same time, iron and aluminum playing the role of the main elements in the earth's crust, in the ocean have a concentration lower than molybdenum and zinc. In the lowest quantity in the ocean, such elements like niobium, scandium, beryllium and thorium are dissolved.
To determine some geochemical and biogeochemical indicators, it is necessary to know the concentration of elements not only in seawater, but also in the solid phase of soluble substances, i.e. in the sum of salt water salts. The table shows the data for the calculation of which the value of the average salinity is taken equal to 35 g / l.
As shown above, the leading factor in the evolution of the chemical composition of the ocean during geological history was the total biogeochemical activity of living organisms. An equally important role of organisms are played in modern processes of differentiation of chemical elements in the ocean and the dismissal of their mass. According to the bio filtration hypothesis, developed by A. P. Lisicin, plankton (mainly zooplankton) organisms are filtered daily through their bodies about 1.2 €107 km3 of water, or about 1% of the world's ocean. At the same time, thin mineral suspensions (particles of 1 μm and less) are associated with lumps (pellets). Dimensions of pellets from dozens of micrometers up to 1 - 4 mm. The binding of thin suspensions in lumps provides a faster sedimentation on the bottom of the weighted material. At the same time, a portion of the biological elements dissolved in water in the bodies of organisms goes into insoluble compounds. The most common examples of biogeochemical binding of dissolved elements in insoluble compounds can be the formation of lime (calcite) and silicon (opal) skeletons of planktonny organisms, as well as calcium carbonate extraction with lime algae and corals.
Among Pelagic Ilov (deep-water sediments of the ocean) two groups can be distinguished. The first consist mainly of the biogenic formations of plankton, the second are formed in the main particles of non-biogenic origin. In the first group, the most common (carbonate) ils are most common, in the second - clay il. Carbonate iba occupy about a third of the Ocean DNA Square, clay - more than a quarter. In carbonate precipitation, the concentration of not only calcium and magnesium increases, but also strontium and iodine. In the ylah, where clay components prevail, significantly larger metals. Some elements are very poorly taken out of the solution in the sludge and gradually accumulate in sea water. They should be called Talas-Sofil. Calculating the relationship between concentrations in the amount of soluble seawater salts and ylah, we obtain the value of the ThalaSophility coefficient of the CT, showing how many times this element is greater than in the salt part of the ocean water compared to the sediment. Thalassophilic elements accumulated in the dissolved salt part of the water have the following CT coefficients:
| Chemical element | In relation toto clay rally. | In relation to limestone |
| Iodine | 180 0 | 36,0 |
| Bromine | 27 5 | 27 5 |
| Chromium | 27 0 | 27 0 |
| Sulfur | 19 5 | 19 5 |
| Sodium | . 7 7 | 15 4 |
| Magnesium | 1 8 | 0 9 |
| Strontium | 1 3 | 0 1 |
| Boron | 06 | 2 3 |
| Potassium | 04 | 3 8 |
| Molybdenum | 0 01 | 10 0 |
| Lithium | 0.09 | 1.0 |
Knowing the mass of the element in the world ocean and the magnitude of its annual receipt, it is possible to determine the rate of its removal from the oceanic solution. For example, the number of arsenic in the ocean is approximately 3,6 °109 t, 74 €103 t / year is brought with a river runoff. Consequently, over a period of 49 thousand years, there is a complete removal of the entire mass of arsenic from the world's ocean.
An assessment of the time of finding elements in a dissolved state in the ocean was taken by many authors: T.F. Bart (1961), E.D. Goldberg (1965), H.J. Bowen (1966), A.P. Qinograd (1967) and others. These different authors have large or smaller discrepancies. According to our calculations, the periods of complete removal of dissolved chemical elements from the oceans are characterized by the following time intervals (in years, in a sequence of increase in the period in each row):
- n * 102: TH, ZR, AL, Y, SC
- n * 103: PB, SN, MN, FE, CO, CU, NI, CR, TI, ZN
- n * 104: AG, CD, SI, BA, AS, HG, N
- n * 105: Mo, U, I
- n * 106: CA, F, SR, B, K
- n * 107: S, Na
- n * 108: C1, BR
Upon all the orientation of such calculations, the order of the obtained values \u200b\u200ballow to allocate groups of scattered elements, differing in the duration of being in the oceanic solution. The elements that are most intensively concentrating in deep-water flashes have the smallest duration of being in the ocean. These are thorium, zirconium, yttrium, scandium, aluminum. They are close to periods of spending in the ocean solution of lead, manganese, iron, cobalt. Most of the metals are completely excreted from the ocean over several thousand or tens of thousands of years. Thalassophilic elements are in a dissolved state of hundreds of thousands of years and more.
Significant masses of scattered elements in the ocean are associated with dispersed organic matter. Its main source serve dying planktonic organisms. The process of destruction of their residues is most actively going to a depth of 500-1000 m. Therefore, the huge masses of the dispersed organic matter of marine organisms accumulate are accumulated in the sediments of the shelf and shallow renewaling seas, which are added organic stigs made by the river flow from sushi.
The main part of the ocean organic matter is in a dissolved state and only 3-5% in the form of suspension (Vinogradov A. P., 1967). The concentration of these suspensions in the water is small, but their total mass in all the volume of the ocean is very significant: 120 - 200 billion tons. The annual accumulation of highly dispersed organic detritus in the sediments of the World Ocean, according to V.A. Sucansky, exceeds 0.5109 t.
The dispersed organic substance sorbitates and fascinates a certain complex of scattered elements in precipitation. Their content with a certain convention can be judged by the trace elementary composition of large clusters of organic matter - coal and oil deposits. The concentration of elements in these objects is usually given with respect to ash; No less important data in relation to the original, non-zeal material.
As can be seen from the table. 4.2, the microelement composition of stone coal and oil differs in principle.
Table 4.2.
Average concentrations of scattered metals in coal and oil, 10-4%
| Chemical element | In a dry substance of stone coals (V. R. Claire, 1979) | In the ash of stone coals (F.Ya.Saprykin, 1975) | In the ashes of the oil (K. Krauskopf, 1958) |
| TI | 1600 | 9200 | - |
| Mn. | 155 | - | - |
| Zr. | 70 | 480 | 50-500 |
| Zn. | 50 | 319 | 100-2500 |
| CR | 18 | - | 200-3000 |
| V. | 17 (10-200) | - | 500-25000 |
| Cu. | 11 | - | 200-8000 |
| PB. | 10 | 93 | 50-2000 |
| Ni. | 5 | 214 | 1000-45000 |
| GA. | 4,5(0,6-18) | 64 | 3-30 |
| Co. | 2 | 63 | 100-500 |
| Mo. | 2 | 21 | 50-1500 |
| AG | 1,5 | - | 5 |
| SN. | 1,2 | 15 | 20-500 |
| Hg. | 0,2 | - | - |
| As | - | - | 1500 |
| BA. | - | - | 500-1000 |
| Sr. | - | - | 500-1000 |
In oil, the ratio is a significantly higher concentration of many scattered elements. The high content of titanium, manganese and zirconium in stone coals is caused by mineral impurities. Among the diffused metals, the greatest concentration is characteristic of zinc, chromium, vanadium, copper and lead.
Many toxic elements (arsenic, mercury, lead, etc.) are actively accumulated in the organic matter (arsenic, mercury, lead from oceanic water. Consequently, the dispersed organic matter, like mineral suspension, performs the role of a global sorbent regulating the content of scattered elements and a protective medium of the World Ocean from hazardous levels of their concentration. The number of multiple elements associated in the dispersed organic matter is very significantly, given that the mass of the substance in sedimentary rocks is hundreds of times the total number of all the deposits of stone coal, coal global shale and oil. In accordance with the data of J. Khanta (1972), NB Vassoevich (1973), A.B. Ronova (1976) The total amount of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is (1520) 1015 t.
The masses of the scattered elements accumulated in the organic substance of the sedimentary strata of the Earth are measured by many billion tons.
(Visited 452 Times, 1 Visits Today)
hydrosphere (an aqueous shell of the Earth), which is overwhelming part (more than $ 90 \\% $) and is a totality of water bodies (oceans, seas, bays, straits, etc.), wash the sushi sites (mainland, peninsula, islands, etc. .d.).
The World Ocean area is about $ 70 \\% $ planet Earth, which exceeds the area of \u200b\u200ball sushi by more than $ 2 $.
The world ocean, as the main part of the hydrosphere, is a special component - the oceanosphere, which is the object of studying the science of oceanology. Thanks to this scientific discipline, the component, as well as the physico-chemical composition of the oceans, is currently known. Consider a Read more Component composition of the World Ocean.
The world ocean can be combined on the main components of its independent major parts communicating between themselves - oceans. In Russia, on the basis of an established classification, four separate oceans from the composition of the World Ocean were released: quiet, Atlantic, Indian and North Arctic. In some foreign countries, in addition to the four oceans, the fifth - southern (or southern ice), in which the water is combined southern pieces The Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans surrounding Antarctica. However, due to the uncertainty of the borders, this ocean in the Russian classification of oceans is not allocated.
Ready work on a similar topic
- Coursework 480 rubles.
- abstract World Ocean. Composition of the World Ocean 250 rubles.
- Test World Ocean. Composition of the World Ocean 190 rub.
Seas
In turn, the component composition of the oceans includes seas, bays, straits.
Definition 2.
Sea - This is part of the ocean, limited by the banks of the mainland, islands and the raises of the bottom and differing from neighboring objects with physico-chemical, environmental and other conditions, as well as characteristic hydrological characteristics.
According to the morphological and hydrological characteristics of the sea, they are divided into outskirts, mediterranean and inter-stripes.
The outskirts of the seas are located on the underwater outskirts of the mainland, the shelf zone, in transition zones and are separated from the ocean islands, archipelagoes, peninsula or underwater thresholds.
The sea, which are confined to the mainland shallows, shallow water. For example, the yellow sea has a maximum depth of $ 106 meters, and those seas that are located in the so-called transition zones are characterized by depths to $ 4 \\ 000 $ meters - Okhotsk, Bering and so on.
The water of the seasons in the physico-chemical composition is practically no different from the open waters of the oceans, because these seas have an extensive front of the compounds with the oceans.
Definition 3.
Mediterranean Called the seas that are deeply crashing into the land and are connected to the waters of the oceans with one or more small straits. This feature Mediterranean seas, explains the difficulty of their water exchange with the waters of the oceans, which forms the special hydrological regime of these seas. Mediterranean seas include Mediterranean, Black, Azov, Red and other seas. Mediterranean seas in turn are divided into intermatherente and intramatics.
The interconnect seas are separated from the oceans of the islands or archipelagoes consisting of rings of individual islands or island arcs. Similar seas include the Philippine Sea, Sea Fiji, a sea gang, and others. Sargassovo Sea, which does not have definitely established and pronounced borders, but have a pronounced and specific hydrological regime and special types of marine flora and fauna, also belongs to the interconnection seas.
Bulips and sheds
Definition 4.
Bay - This is part of the ocean or the sea, coming into the land, but not separated from it underwater threshold.
Depending on the nature of origin, hydrogeological features, forms of the coastline, forms, as well as a deritment to a particular region or country, the bays are divided into: Fieverads, Bays, Laguna, Limans, Lips, Estairia, Havan and others. The greatest in the area is recognized by the Guinean Bay, washing the coast of the countries of Central and West Africa.
In turn, the oceans, the sea and the bay are combined by interfering with the relatively narrow parts of the ocean or the sea, which are separated by the mainland or islands - straits. Straits have its own special hydrological mode, a special flow system. The bigst and deep strait is considered the strait of a drake separating South America And Antarctica. Its average width is 986 kilometers, and the depth of more than 3000 meters.
Physico-chemical composition of the Water World Ocean
Sea water is a strongly diluted solution of mineral salts, a variety of gases and an organic matter containing in its composition of the suspension of both organic and inorganic origin.
In seawater, a series of physicochemical, ecological and biological processes is constantly flowing, which have a direct effect on the change in the total composition of the concentration of the solution. The composition and concentration of mineral and organic substances in oceanic water have the active impact of the inflows of freshwater flowing into the oceans, evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean, falling on the surface of the ocean of atmospheric precipitation, the processes of formation and melting of ice.
Note 1.
Some processes, such as the activities of marine organisms, the formation and disintegration of bottom sediments, are aimed at changing the content and concentration in water solids and, as a result, the change in the relationship between them. Breathing of living organisms, the process of photosynthesis and the activity of bacteria have an impact on the change in concentration in water dissolved gases. Despite this, all these processes do not disturb the concentration of the salt composition for the main elements included in the solution.
Salts and other mineral dissolved in water and organic substances are mainly in the form of ions. The composition of salts is varied, in oceanic water there are almost all chemical elements, but the main mass is the following ions:
- $ Na ^ + $
- $ SO_4 $
- $ Mg_2 ^ + $
- $ CA_2 ^ + $
- $ HCO_3, \\ CO $
- $ H2_BO_3 $
The greatest concentrations in sea waters contain chlorine - $ 1.9% $, sodium - $ 1.06 \\% $, magnesium - $ 0.13 \\% $, sulfur - $ 0.088 \\% $, calcium - $ 0.040 \\% $, potassium - $ 0.038 \\% $, bromine - $ 0,0065 \\% $, carbon - $ 0.003 \\% $. The content of other elements is insignificant and is about $ 0.05 \\%. $
The total mass of the substance dissolved in the world ocean is more than $ 50,000 T.
In the waters and at the Day of the World Ocean, precious metals were discovered, but their concentration is insignificant and, accordingly, mining them is unprofitable. Ocean water in its chemical composition is straightely different from the composition of the sushi water.
The concentration of salts and the salt composition in various parts of the world's ocean is heterogeneous, but the greatest differences in salinity indicators are observed in the surface layers of the ocean, which explains the impact of the influence of various external factors.
The main factor that makes adjustments to the concentration of salt water salts is atmospheric precipitation and evaporation from the surface of the water. The smallest salinity indicators on the surface of the world's ocean are observed in high latitudes, as these regions have excess of precipitation over evaporation, significant river drain and melting of floating ice. Approaching the area of \u200b\u200bthe tropics level salinity increases. In equatorial latitudes, the number of atmospheric precipitations increases, and the salinity here again decreases. The distribution of salinity vertically different in different latitudinal zones, but deeper than $ 1500 $ meters, salinity remains almost constant and does not depend on the latitude.
Note 2.
Also, in addition to salinity, one of the main physical properties Sea water is its transparency. Under the transparency of water, the depth is understood by the white disk of the sequel with a diameter of $ 30 centimeters ceases to be a visible naked eye. The transparency of water depends, as a rule, from the content of suspended particles of various origin in water.
The color or chromaticity of water is largely dependent on the concentration of suspended particles, dissolved gases, other impurities. Color is able to change from blue, turquoise and blue shades in pure tropical waters to blue-green and greenish and yellowish shades in coastal waters.
General. The Ocean Square is 361 million km / sq. In the northern hemisphere, the global ocean occupies 61%, and in South - 81% of the hemisphey area. For convenience earth Depicted in the form of so-called hemispheres. Highlights of the northern, southern, western and eastern hemispheres, as well as the cards of the hemispheres of the oceans and the mainland (Fig. 7). In oceanic hemispheres, 95.5% of the area occupies water.
World Ocean: the structure and history of the study. The world ocean is one, he is not interrupted anywhere. From any of its point you can get into any other, without crossing the land. According to scientists, the term ocean is borrowed from Phoneania and translated from ancient Greek language means "the Great River, Watching Earth."
The term "world ocean" introduced a Russian scientist Yu.M. Shokalsky in 1917. In rare cases, instead of the term "world ocean" use the term "oceanosphere".
Card hemispheres of graphic discoveries, which covers the oceans from the second half of the XV century to the first half of the XVII century. Great geographical discoveries are associated with the names of X. Columbus, J. Cabot, Vasco da Gama, F. Magellan, J. Drayka, A. Tasman, A. Vespucci, etc. Thanks to the outstanding seafarers and travelers, humanity learned a lot of interesting things about the World Ocean, about His outlines, depth, salinity, temperature mode, etc.
The purposeful scientific research studies of the World Ocean were started in the XVII century and are associated with the names of J. Cook, I. Kruzenshtern, Y. Lysyansky, F. Bellinshausen, N. Lazareva, S. Makarova, and others. A significant contribution to the study of the World Ocean has made an oceanographic expedition to Shile "Chellandger". The results obtained by the expedition "Challenger" laid the foundation for new science - oceanography.
In the 20th century, the study of the World Ocean is carried out on the basis of international cooperation. Since 1920, work is underway to measure the depths of the World Ocean. An outstanding French explorer, Jean Picar, in 1960, was the first to go to the bottom of Mariana Vpadin. A lot of interesting information about the World Ocean collected the team of the famous French explorer Jacques Iva Kusto. Space observations are valuable information about the World Ocean.
The structure of the World Ocean. The world ocean is known to be conditionally divided into separate oceans, seas, bays and straits. Each ocean is a separate natural complex due to geographical position, the originality of the geological structure and inhabiting its bioorganisms.
The world ocean in 1650 was first divided by the Dutch scientist B. Varenius for 5 parts, which at present approved the International Oceanographic Committee. The composition of the oceans is allocated 69 seas, including 2 on land (Caspian and Aral).
Geological structure. The world ocean consists of large lithospheric plates, which, with the exception of Pacific, are named by the name of the mainland.
On the bottom of the World Ocean there are river, glacial and biogenic sediments. The deposits of existing volcanoes are usually confined to the mid-oceanic ridges.
Relief of the World Ocean. The relief of the World Ocean, as well as the Sushi relief, has a complex structure. The bottom of the world's ocean is usually separated from land sushi, or shelf. At the Day of the World Ocean, like on land, there are plains, mountain chains, plain elevations, canyons and depressions. Deep-sea depressions - the notion of the World Ocean, which can not be found on land.
The average and oceanic ridges are together with the extensions a continuous single chain of a length of 60,000 km. Sushi waters are separated between five pools: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Northern Arctic and internal closed. For example, rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean or to the components of his sea are called the rivers of the Pacific basin, etc.
A.Osaatov, A. Abdulkassimov, M.Mirakmalov "Physical Geography of the Strain and Oceans" Publishing and Printing Creativity "O`qituvchi" Tashkent-2013
The hydrosphere is a shell of the Earth, which form oceans, seas, surface reservoirs, snow, ice, rivers, time streams of water, water vapor, clouds. The shell, composed of water bodies and rivers, the oceans is intermittent. An underground hydrosphere forms underground flows, groundwater, artesian pools.
The hydrosphere has a volume equal to 1,533,000,000 cubic kilometers. Water covered three fourth surfaces of the Earth. Seventy-one percent of the earth surface covers the sea and oceans.
A huge water area largely determines the water and thermal regimes on the planet, since water has a high heat capacity, it lates a large energy potential. The water belongs to a large role in the formation of the soil, landscape appearance. Water of the World Ocean differ chemical compositionIn distilled form, water is practically not found.
Oceans and the sea
The world ocean is a water area that is washed by the continent, it is more than 96 percent of the entire volume of the earth's hydrosphere. Two layers of the water mass of the World Ocean have different temperaturethat in the end causes the temperature regime of the Earth. The world ocean accumulates the energy of the Sun, when cooled, part of the heat transfers the atmosphere. That is, the thermoregulation of the Earth is largely due to the nature of the hydrosphere. The world ocean includes four oceans: Indian, quiet, northern ice, Atlantic. Some scientists allocate the Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica.
The world ocean is characterized by the heterogeneity of the aquatic masses, which, located in a certain place, acquire distinctive characteristics. Vertical in the ocean is distinguished by bottom, intermediate, surface and subsurface layers. The bottom mass has the largest volume, it is the coldest.
The sea is part of the ocean that goes into the mainland or adjacent to it. The sea is different in its peculiarities from the rest of the ocean. In the pools of the seas there is its own hydrological mode.
The sea is divided into internal (for example, black, Baltic), inter-partition (in Indo-Malay archipelago) and the outskirts (sea of \u200b\u200bthe Arctic). Among the seas are distinguished in intramaterial (white sea), intermatherente (Mediterranean).
Rivers, lakes and swamps
An important component of the Earth's hydrosphere - rivers, contains 0.0002 percent of all water reserves, 0.005 percent of freshwater. Rivers - an important natural water tank that is spent on drinking needs, the needs of industry, agriculture. Rivers - source of irrigation, water supply, edge. Rivers feed on snow cover, groundwater and rated water.
The lakes occur during the excess of moisture and with the presence of Kotlovin. Basins may have tectonic, glacier-tectonic, volcanic, carot origin. Thermal lakes are common in the districts of permafrost, floodplain lakes are often found in the floodplains of rivers. The mode of the lake is determined by whether the water river will fall out of the lake or not. Lakes can be a lightweight, flow-down, represent the common lake and river system with the river.
On the plains in the conditions of overgrowth, the swamps are common. Milnovy are fitted with soils, ridicule - sediments, transition - soil and precipitation.
The groundwater
Underground waters are located at different depths in the form of aquifer in rocks earth crust. Groundwater closer to the surface of the Earth, groundwater are located in deeper layers. Mineral and thermal waters represent the greatest interest.
Clouds and water vapor
The condensate of the water vapor forms the clouds. If the cloud has a mixed composition, that is, it includes crystals of ice and water, then they become a source of precipitation.
Glaciers
All components of the hydrosphere have their own particular role in global energy exchange processes, global moisture processes, affect many life-forming processes on Earth.
