The era of the "Warring Kingdoms" is also characterized by significant events in the area artistic culture. INduring this period, the range of topics covered by art expanded significantly. The first treatise on architectureZhouli. in which the strict principles of a clear city planning are fixed, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of the main streets and roads.

Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - "The Book of Songs" - "Shijing" (X1-VI centuries BC) was completed, which included more than 300 nessen and poems, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius.

During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC), who was both a lyricist and a tragedian, was creating. The origins of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by exquisite form and deep content. Once in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode "The Sorrow of the Exile," which became the elder's poetic confession. The second great poet was Yu Soup (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer of female beauty and love.

The culture of Ancient China reaches its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC. up to 111 century AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.

The Minister of the Qin Kingdom Shang Yang, relying on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which a unified legislation and legal procedure was established; abolished hereditary titles and privileges; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out by methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the Qin kingdom, relying on the most powerful army, was able to subjugate all the other "fighting kingdoms", becoming a powerful and centralized state. In 221 BC. the Qin ruler adopted a new title "Huangdi" - "Emperor Qin". In 206 BC. qin dynasty gives way to new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.

In the Han era The Chinese empire is becoming one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which was 1/5 of the world population. Modern Chinese people call themselves Han.

During this period, China is experiencing a real social and economic boom. The country is covered by a network of roads connecting the provincial centers with the capital. Numerous channels are being built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchange.

In agriculture, the most advanced cultivation technologies are used with the use of fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighboring countries tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century. BC. silk production reaches enormous proportions. It becomes China's top export commodity.

Roughly the same can be said about varnish production. The varnish created by the Chinese was unrivaled. It has been used to coat weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a beautiful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both domestically and abroad.

The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper (II-I centuries BC), which caused a real revolution in the entire culture. Equally important was the perfected hieroglyphic writing adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.

In the artistic crafts of this period, the features of mature and high perfection are affirmed, which become the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels have more streamlined and simple forms, they lose their magical meaning. Ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.

In the Qin Han era, China established extensive and intense ties with other states. Played a special role in this The great silk road with a length of 7 thousand km, along which trade caravans went to Central Asia, India, Iran and the Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramic and other products to the international market.

During the Han period, favorable conditions for development of science. Chinese scientists, as it were, sum up the results, systematize the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly move on. IN mathematics the treatise "Mathematics in nine books" was created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science it is spoken about negative numbers and the rules of operations on them are given.

IN astrology the map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made about the observation of sunspots, the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicinea catalog of medical books is being compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology is written. Added to this is the invention of the world's first seismograph.

Developing no less successfully humanitarian sciences. In particular, philology and poetics appeared, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the "father" of Chinese history - creates a fundamental work "Historical Notes" (130 volumes), which not only sets out almost all of ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples.

Art culture is experiencing an unprecedented rise. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecturethat persist to this day. Urban planning reaches a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chan-an - are distinguished by a clear layout and beauty of the streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors and more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. The most famous architectural monument of Ancient China was The great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located not far from Beijing, where it is 5-8 m wide and up to 10 m high. The entire length of the wall with all its branches is more than 6 thousand km.

The burial complex of Emperor Qin Shih Huang is also an amazing monument. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a giant underground palace. The premises of this palace are filled with rows of life-size ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. All this army of clay numbers three thousand foot soldiers and horsemen.

Reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong found in the burial temple of the noble Wu clan, as well as the stone reliefs of their burial vaults in Sichuan. The first depicts plots on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. In the second, there are scenes from the life of the people - harvesting, hunting, hard work in the salt mines.

In the Han period appears easel painting, as evidenced by the found part of the painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. The invention of the hair brush and ink was of great importance for the development of painting and fine arts.

The Han era was the heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. who created at his court a large library and a music chamber, where folk songs were collected and processed, new musical works were created.

The most prominent poet of the Han era was Sima Xianzhu (179-118 BC). He praised the vast expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the most "great man" - Emperor Udi. The most famous works are the ode "Beauty" and the song "Fishing rod", created in imitation of folk lyric songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry in the Han period, the first major works of fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fiction were created.

Chinese culture will reach its highest rise and flowering later, in the middle of the century, but all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were already laid in ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The era of Zhanguo-Qin-Han was for China and all of East Asia about the same significance as the Greco-Roman culture for Western Europe.

6 culture of ancient India

Indian culture is one of the most original and unique. Its originality lies primarily in wealth and diversity of religious and philosophical teachings. The well-known Swiss writer G. Hesse notes in this regard: "India is a country of a thousand religions, the Indian spirit is noted among other peoples by a specifically religious genius." In this, Indian culture is unmatched. That is why, already in ancient times, India was called "the land of the wise."

The second feature of Indian culture is associated with its orientation to the Universe, her immersion in the secrets of the universe. The Indian writer R. Tagore stressed: "India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe."

The third important feature of Indian culture, seemingly contradicting the previous one, is its turning inside the human world, self-immersion in the depths of the human soul. A striking example of this is the famous philosophy and practice of yoga.

The unique originality of Indian culture is also made up of its amazing musicality and danceability.

Another important feature is in special reverence by the Indians of love - sensual and physical, which they do not consider sinful.

The originality of Indian culture is largely due to the characteristics of the Indian ethnos. Numerous tribes and peoples of different languages \u200b\u200bparticipated in its formation - from local Dravidians to newcomer Aryans. In fact, the Indian people are super ethnos, which includes several independent peoples.

The culture of Ancient India existed from about the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. and until the VI century. AD The modern name "India" appeared only in the 19th century. In the past it was known as the "land of the Aryans", "the land of the brahmanas", "the land of the sages."

The history of Ancient India falls into two large periods. The first is time Harappan civilization,formed in the valley of the Indus River (2500-1800 BC). Second period - Aryan - covers all subsequent Indian history and is associated with the arrival and settlement of the Aryan tribes in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers.

Harappan civilization with its main centers in the cities of Kharappa (modern Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro ("Hill of the Dead"), has reached a high level of development. This is evidenced by those few large cities that were distinguished by a harmonious layout and had an excellent drainage system. The Harappan civilization had its own writing and language, the origins of which remain a mystery. In the artistic culture, small plastic arts developed especially successfully: small figurines, reliefs on seals. Vivid examples of this plastic are the bust of a priest (18 cm) from Mohenjo-Daro and the torso of a dancing man (10 cm) from Harapia. Having experienced a high rise and prosperity, the Harappan culture and civilization gradually fell into decay, caused by climate change, river floods and especially epidemics.

After the end of the Harappan civilization, Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. The Aryans were nomads, but. settling on Indian soil, becoming farmers and herders. They mixed with the local population and at the same time, together with new blood, breathed new life into the Indian ethnos.

With the arrival of the Aryans, a new one begins in Indian history and culture, Indo-Aryan period. About the main part of this period, the main source of information is created by the Aryans Veda(from the verb "to know", "to know"). They are a collection of religious texts - hymns, chants and magic formulas. The main content of the Vedas is a story about the complex and painful process of self-assertion of the Aryans in a new place of life, about their struggle with local tribes.

They are written in Vedic language, the oldest form of Sanskrit. The Vedas are in four parts:

Rigveda (religious hymns);

Samaveda (chants);

Yajurveda (sacrificial formulas):

Ltharvaveda (magic spells and formulas).

Vedic literature also includes comments The Vedas are brahmanas and Upanishads.

The Vedas form the basis of all subsequent spiritual culture of India: theology, philosophy and science. They contain information about all aspects of the life of the ancient Indians. In particular, they report on the division of Indian society into four varnas:

brahmanas (priests);

kshatriyas (warriors);

vaisyas (farmers, artisans, merchants);

sudras (slaves and prisoners of war).

These four varnas were later supplemented by numerous castes (more than two thousand), which have survived to this day.

Starting with the Vedas, a kind of mosaic of religions has developed in India. The first of them was Vedism - the religion of the Vedas themselves. It is characterized by polytheism and anthropomorphism. Chief among all the deities was Indra - the god of the Storm, a powerful warrior, the patron saint of the Aryans in their struggle with local tribes. In the Rig Veda, most of the hymns are dedicated to him. He is followed by: Varuna - the god of the sky and space: Surya - the sun god; Vishnu - personifying the rotation of the Sun; Agni is the god of fire, etc.

At the new - epic - stage (1st millennium BC) Vedism is transformed into brahmanism. It represents a more harmonious doctrine of the world, in which the former set of gods is reduced to trinity.The absolute and indefinite essence - Brahman - manifests itself in the vtrimurgi, or in the triune deity: Brahma - the creator of the world; Vishnu is the guardian of the world; Shiva is the destroyer of the world.

In the second half I thousand BC brahmanism goes into Hinduism, which assimilates many Indian beliefs - from pagan to Buddhism. Hinduism is the most widespread religion in India, encompassing over 80% of believers. It exists in two main directions: Vishnuism and Shaivism. At the same time, today, an independent branch of Hinduism is Krishnaism.The inclusion of various cults in Hinduism is carried out through the concept of the avatara (incarnations) of Vishna. According to this concept, Vishna descends into the world. reincarnating in various images. There are ten such avatars, of which the seventh, eighth and ninth are the main ones. In them, Vishnu assumes the forms of Rama, Krishna and Buddha.

The scripture of Hinduism is Bhagavatgita (The Lord's Song) is one of the parts of the Mahabharata. The basis of Hinduism is the doctrine of the eternal transmigration of souls ( samsara), occurring in accordance with the law of retribution (karma) for everything you've done in life.

In VI in. BC. appears in India Buddhism - one of the sins of world religions. Its creator was Siddhartha Gautama, who at the age of forty attained the state of enlightenment and received the name Buddha (enlightened).

In the III century. BC. Buddhism reached its greatest influence and spread, supplanting Brahmanism. But from the middle of the 1st millennium AD. its influence gradually declines, and at the beginning of the I millennium AD. he dissolves into Hinduism. His further life as an independent religion took place outside India - in China, Japan and other countries.

The basis of Buddhism makes up the doctrine of the "four noble truths": there is suffering; its source is desire: salvation from suffering is possible; there is a path to salvation, to liberation from suffering. The path to salvation lies through the rejection of worldly temptations, through self-improvement, through non-resistance to evil. The highest state - nirvana - means salvation. Nirvana (extinction) is a borderline state between life and death, meaning complete detachment from the outside world, the absence of any desires, complete satisfaction, inner enlightenment. Buddhism promises salvation to all believers, regardless of belonging to a particular varna or caste.

IN buddhism there are two directions. The first, the Hinayana (small carriage), presupposes full entry into nirvana. The second - Mahayana (large carriage) - means the maximum approach to nirvana, but refusal to enter it for the sake of helping and saving others.

Concurrent Buddhism in India arises Jainism, which is close to Buddhism, but survived the struggle against Hinduism, since it adopted the division into varnas and castes. It also has the concept of nirvana, but the main thing is the principle of ahimsa - non-harm to all living things.

In the XVI century. stood out from Hinduism as an independent religion sikhism, who opposed the hierarchy of varnas and castes, for the equality of all believers before God.

The religious life of Indians is characterized by the preservation of the earliest forms of religion - fetishism and totemism, as evidenced by worship of many animals. Among the sacred are cows and bulls from the Zebu breed (which, unlike cows, are used in household work). The Indians pay special attention to monkeys. They live in temples by the thousands, receiving food and care from people. Cobras are even more worshiped.

There is a real cult of snakes in India. They built magnificent temples, legends are formed about them and legends are written. The snake embodies perpetual motion. The Indians put the sign of the snake on both sides of the front door of their home. Every year, at the end of July, the festival of snakes is solemnly celebrated. They are treated with milk and honey, showered with pollen, and jasmine and red lotus flowers are placed in their holes. In gratitude for such attention, snakes do not bite on this day. Some animals are traditionally associated with certain gods, whom they represent: a cow with Krishna, a cobra with Shiva, a goose with Brahma.

An important role in the life of Indians is played by castes, of which there are more than two thousand. They formed on the basis of four varn and have existed since the early Middle Ages. The lowest among them is the untouchable caste. Its members do the dirtiest and most humiliating work. They are forbidden to enter not only the temples for the higher castes, but even the kitchen. They also cannot use the things of the higher castes.

Currently, the role of castes in political life is legally limited. However, in everyday life, this role remains significant, especially in family and marriage relations. As a rule, marriages are concluded within castes and most often without taking into account the opinion of the future spouses. Among the upper and middle castes, weddings take place in the bride's house and are distinguished by pomp and luxury. In the lower castes, a ransom is due for the bride.

Besides religion, in ancient India other areas of culture reached a high level. This primarily applies to philosophy. Among the so-called orthodox, i.e. recognizing the authority of the Vedas, there are six philosophical schools: Vaisesika, Vedanta, Yoga, Mimamsa, Nyaya and Sankhya. Some of them are close to each other. In particular, the content Vedanta and mimansa are reflections on the ways of human liberation, problems of public life. Atomistic doctrine vaisesik had much in common with logic and theory of knowledge nyai... which eventually led to their merger. At the heart of dualistic philosophy sanyahya is the problem of two opposite principles of the world - matter and spirit. The school gives preference to the spirit, exploring the possibilities and ways of its liberation.

All of the philosophical concepts touched upon are closely related and intertwined with any religion. To one degree or another, these trends take place in the philosophical thought of modern India and retain their influence. However, the most famous and famous is philosophical school of yogafounded by Patanjali. Yoga is based on the idea of \u200b\u200ba deep connection between human psychophysiology and space. Its goal is to achieve the state of nirvana, liberation from the law of karma.

The means to achieve this goal is a system of special efforts and exercises - both physical and spiritual and intellectual. The first ones are intended for the body, they include certain exercises for mastering special postures - asanas, as well as exercises for breathing. The latter are aimed at bringing human psyche into a state of self-absorption and concentration. Meditation plays an exceptional role in this.

Along with philosophy in ancient India, the the science. The most significant advances were made by Indians in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and linguistics. Indian mathematiciansthe meaning of the number "pi" was known, they created a decimal number system using zero. The well-known Arabic numerals were most likely invented by the Indians. Mathematical terms "digit", "sine", "root" are also of Indian origin. Indian astronomers made a guess about the rotation of the Earth around its axis. Indian the medicine,who created the science of longevity (Ayurveda). Indian surgeons performed 300 types of operations using about 120 surgical instruments. Linguisticsowes its birth primarily to Indian scientists.

Artistic culture of ancient India

Artistic culture has reached an equally high level, where a special place is literature. The oldest literary monument is the Vedas. The beginning of their creation dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. Somewhat later, in the 1st millennium BC, two more great literary monuments appeared - "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". The main content of the first is a dispute about power between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, which ended in a multi-day battle between them, in which the Pandavas defeated. The main characters of the events are Arjuna and his charioteer and mentor Krishna, whose teachings form a separate part of the monument - "Bhagavatgita".

Of the later monuments of literature, the Panchatantra (Pentateuch, III-IV centuries AD), a collection of fairy tales, fables, parables and moralizing stories, deserves special attention. The work of the poet and playwright Kalidas also deserves special emphasis. The drama "I Pakuntala", as well as the poems "The Herald of the Cloud" and "The Birth of Kumara" brought him worldwide fame.

As for the ancient Indian architecture, then its development has some peculiarities. The fact is that no monuments of the material culture of Ancient India, including architectural ones that existed before the 3rd century. BC, have not survived and have not survived to this day. This is because. that at that time the main building material was wood, which did not stand the test of time. Only in the III century. BC. the use of stone begins in construction, and since that time many architectural structures have already been preserved. Since the dominant religion during this period was Buddhism, the main monuments are Buddhist structures: stupas, stambhi, cave temples.

Buddhist stupas are round brick structures with a diameter of 36 m and a height of 16 m. According to legend, the relics of the Buddha were kept in the stupas. The most famous of them is the "Big Stupa No. 1", surrounded by a fence with a gate. Stambhi are monolithic pillars with a height of about 15 m, at the top of which the figure of a sacred animal is installed, and the surface is covered with Buddhist inscriptions.

Cave temples were usually included in the complex of buildings together with monasteries. The most famous temple is the complex in Ajand, which unites 29 caves. This temple is also interesting because it has preserved fine examples of ancient Indian painting. Ajanta's murals depict sienas from the life of the Buddha, mythological subjects, as well as scenes from secular life: dance, royal hunting, etc.

Indian culture cannot be imagined outside of music, dance and theater, which are organically fused with each other. Vocal music Indians understand as the beginning and end of all arts. The ancient treatise "Natyashastra" is dedicated to the peculiarities of music, canons and dance technique. It says: "Music is a tree of nature itself, its flowering is a dance." Origins dance and theater are found in the cult rites and games of the ancient Indian tribes. The creator of the dance is Shiva, who is called Nataraja (the king of dance). Krsna is also known as a dancer, albeit to a lesser extent. However, most of the classical and folk dances are dedicated specifically to Krishna and Rama.

The culture of Ancient India occupies an exceptional place in world culture. As an oriental one, it has had a tremendous influence on Western culture as well. Many of its monuments and achievements form an organic part of other cultures.

7.Culture of Ancient Greece (periodization, a brief description of each period, the idea of \u200b\u200bman and space, the achievements of ancient Greek culture).

The culture of Ancient Greece has existed since the XXVIII century. BC. and until the middle of the II century. BC. It is also called ancient - to distinguish it from other ancient cultures, and Ancient Greece itself is called Hellas, since the Greeks themselves called their country that way. Ancient Greek culture reached its highest rise and flowering in the 5th-4th centuries. BC, becoming an exceptional, unique and largely unrivaled phenomenon in the history of world culture.

The flourishing of the culture of Ancient Hellas turned out to be so amazing that it still evokes deep admiration and gives reason to talk about the real mystery of the "Greek miracle". The essence of this miracle consists primarily in the fact that only the Greek people, almost simultaneously and in almost all areas of culture, managed to achieve unprecedented heights. No other people - neither before nor after - could do anything like this.

Giving such a high assessment to the achievements of the Greeks, it should be clarified that they borrowed a lot from the Egyptians and Babylonians, which was facilitated by the Greek cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, which served as a kind of windows open to the East. However, they used everything borrowed more as a source material, bringing it to classical forms and true perfection.

And if the Greeks were not the first, then they were the best, and to such an extent that in many respects they remain so today. The second clarification concerns the fact that in the field of economics and material production, the success of the Hellenes may not have been so impressive. However, even here they not only were not inferior to some of their contemporaries, but also surpassed them, as evidenced by the victories in the Persian wars, where they acted not so much in number as in skill and intelligence. True, militarily, Athens - the cradle of democracy - was inferior to Sparta, where the whole way of life was military. As for other areas of social life, and especially spiritual culture, in all this the Greeks knew no equal.

Hellas became the birthplace of all modern forms of state and government, and above all - republics and democracies, the highest flowering of which came during the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). For the first time in Greece two types of labor were clearly distinguished - physical and mental, the first of which was considered unworthy of man and was the lot of a forced slave, while the second was the only one worthy of a free man.

Although city-states existed in other ancient civilizations, it was among the Greeks that this type of organization of society, which adopted policy form, showed all its advantages with the greatest force. The Greeks successfully combined state and private ownership, collective and individual interests. In the same way, they united the aristocracy with the republic, spreading the values \u200b\u200bof aristocratic ethics - adversarial principle, the desire to be the first and the best, achieving this in an open and honest struggle - for all citizens of the policy.

Competitiveness was the basis of the entire way of life of the Hellenes, it permeated all its spheres, be it Olympic Games, a dispute, a battlefield or a theatrical stage, when several authors took part in the festive performances, who presented their plays to the audience, from which the best was then chosen.

Political democracy, excluding despotic power, allowed the Greeks to fully enjoy the spirit freedom, which was the highest value for them. For her sake, they were ready to die. They viewed slavery with deep contempt. This is evidenced by the well-known myth of Prometheus, who did not want to be in the position of a slave even to Zeus himself, the main deity of the Hellenes, and paid for his freedom with martyrdom.

Ancient Greeks lifestyle cannot be imagined without understanding the place that a game. They loved the game. Therefore, they are called real children. However, the game for them was not just fun or a way to kill time. It pervaded all activities, including the most serious. The playful beginning helped the Greeks to get away from the prose of life and crude pragmatism. The game led to the fact that they got pleasure and enjoyment from any business.

The way of life of the Hellenes was also determined by such values \u200b\u200bas truth, beauty and goodnessthat were in close unity. The Greeks had a special concept of "kalokagatiya", which meant "beautiful-good". "Truth" in their understanding approached what the Russian word "truth-justice" means, that is. it went beyond the boundaries of "truth-truth", correct knowledge, and acquired a moral value dimension.

Equally important for the Greeks measure, which was inextricably linked with proportionality, moderation, harmony and order. From Democritus the famous maxim has come down to us: "The proper measure is beautiful in everything." The inscription over the entrance to the Temple of Apollo in Delphi called: "Nothing too much." Therefore, the Greeks, on the one hand, believed own an inalienable attribute of a person: along with the loss of property, the Hellene lost all civil and political rights, ceasing to be a free person. At the same time, the pursuit of wealth was condemned. This feature manifested itself in architecture, the Greeks did not create, like the Egyptians, gigantic structures, their buildings were proportionate to the possibilities of human perception, they did not suppress man.

The ideal of the Greeks was a harmoniously developed, free man, beautiful in body and soul. The formation of such a person was provided by a thoughtful education and training system... which included two directions - "gymnastic" and "musical". The first was physical perfection. Participation in the Olympic Games became its peak, the winners of which were surrounded by glory and honor. At the time of the Olympic Games, all wars were stopped. The musical, or humanitarian, direction involved teaching all types of arts, mastering scientific disciplines and philosophy, including rhetoric, i.e. the ability to speak beautifully, conduct dialogue and dispute. All kinds of education rested on the principle of competition.

It all did greek polis an exceptional, unique phenomenon in the history of mankind. The Greeks perceived the polis as the highest good, not imagining their life outside its framework, they were its true patriots.

True, pride in their polis and patriotism contributed to the formation of Greek cultural ethnocentrism, by virtue of which the Hellenes called their neighboring peoples "barbarians", looked down on them. Nevertheless, it was precisely such a polis that gave the Greeks everything they needed to show unprecedented originality in all areas of culture, to create everything that constitutes a "Greek miracle".

In almost all areas spiritual culture the Greeks put forward the "founding fathers" who laid the foundation for their modern forms. First of all, this concerns philosophy. The Greeks were the first to create a modern form of philosophy, separating it from religion and mythology, beginning to explain the world from itself, without resorting to the help of the gods, proceeding from the primary elements, which for them were water, earth, air, fire.

The first Greek philosopher was Thales, for whom water was the basis of all that exists. The pinnacles of Greek philosophy were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The transition from a religious and mythological view of the world to a philosophical understanding of it meant a fundamental change in the development of the human mind. At the same time, philosophy became modern both by the method - scientific and rational, and by the way of thinking, based on logic and proof. The Greek word "philosophy" has entered almost all languages.

The same can be said about other sciences and primarily about mathematics. Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes are the founders of both mathematics itself and the basic mathematical disciplines - geometry, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics. IN astronomy Aristarchus of Samos was the first to express the idea of \u200b\u200bheliocentrism, according to which the Earth moves around a stationary sun. Hippocrates became the founder of modern clinical medicine, Herodotus is rightfully considered the father stories as a science. Aristotle's Poetics is the first fundamental work that no modern art theorist can ignore.

A similar situation is observed in the field of art. Almost all types and genres of contemporary art were born in Ancient Hellas, and many of them have reached the classical forms and the highest level. The latter primarily refers to sculpture, where the Greeks are rightly given the palm. It is represented by a whole galaxy of great masters headed by Phidias.

This applies equally to literature and its genres - epic, poetry. The Greek tragedy, which reached the highest level, deserves special emphasis. Many Greek tragedies still take place today. Born in Greece order architecture, which has also reached a high level of development. It should be emphasized that art was of great importance in the life of the Greeks. They wanted not only to create, but also to live according to the laws of beauty. The Greeks were the first to feel the need to fill all spheres of human life with high art. They quite consciously strove to aestheticize life, to comprehend the “art of being”, to make a work of art out of their lives.

The ancient Greeks showed exceptional originality in religion. Outwardly, their religious and mythological ideas and cults are not too different from others. Initially, the growing array of Greek gods was rather chaotic and conflicting. Then, after a long struggle, the Olympic gods of the third generation are established, between whom a relatively stable hierarchy is established.

Zeus becomes the supreme deity - the lord of the sky, thunder and lightning. Second after him is Apollo - the patron saint of all arts, the god of healers and a light, calm beginning in nature. Apollo's sister Artemis was the goddess of the hunt and patroness of youth. No less important was Dionysus (Bacchus) - the god of the producing, violent forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Many rituals and merry festivals - Dionysius and Bacchanalia - were associated with his cult. The sun god was Geli os (Helium).

The Greek goddess of wisdom, Athena, who was born from the head of Zeus, was especially worshiped by the Greeks. Her constant companion was the goddess of victory, Nick. The owl was the symbol of Athena's wisdom. No less attention was attracted by the goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite, who was born from sea foam. Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility. The competence of Hermes, apparently, included the largest number of duties: he was the messenger of the Olympic gods, the god of trade, profit and material wealth, the patron saint of deceivers and thieves, shepherds and travelers, orators and athletes. He also escorted the souls of the dead to the underworld. in the possession of the god Hades (Hades, Pluto).

In addition to these, the Greeks had many other gods. They liked to invent more and more gods, and they did it with enthusiasm. In Athens, they even erected an altar with a dedication: "to an unknown god." However, the Greeks were not very original in inventing the gods. This was also observed among other peoples. Their real originality lay in the way they treated their gods.

At the heart of Greek religious beliefs there was no idea about the omnipotence of the gods... They believed that the world is ruled not so much by divine will as by natural laws. At the same time, hovers over the whole world, all gods and people irresistible Rockwhich even the gods cannot change. Fatal fate is beyond the control of anyone, therefore the Greek gods are closer to people than to supernatural forces.

Unlike the gods of other peoples, they are anthropomorphic, although in the distant past, the Greeks also had zoomorphic deities. Some Greek philosophers claimed that people themselves invented gods in their own likeness, that if animals decided to do the same, their gods would be like themselves.

The smooth and most significant difference between the gods and humans was that they were immortal. The second difference was that they were also beautiful, although not all: Hephaestus, for example, was lame. However, their divine beauty was considered quite attainable for humans. In all other respects the world of the gods was similar to the world of people. The gods suffered and rejoiced, loved and were jealous, quarreled among themselves, harmed and took revenge on each other, etc. The Greeks did not identify, but did not draw an insurmountable line between people and gods. The intermediaries between them were heroes,who were born from the marriage of God with an earthly woman and who, for their exploits, could be introduced to the world of the gods.

The closeness between man and God had a significant impact on the religious consciousness and practice of the Hellenes. They believed in their gods, worshiped them, built temples for them, and made sacrifices. But they did not have blind admiration, awe, and even more so fanaticism. We can say that long before Christianity, the Greeks already adhered to the well-known Christian commandment: "Do not create an idol for yourself." The Greeks could afford to criticize the gods. Moreover, they often challenged them. A striking example of this is the same myth about Prometheus, who challenged the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to people.

If other peoples deified their kings and rulers, then the Greeks excluded this. The leader of the Athenian democracy, Perikl, at which she reached the highest point, had nothing else at his disposal to convince his fellow citizens of the correctness of his point of view, except for an outstanding mind, arguments, oratory and eloquence.

Has a special originality greek mythology. Everything that happens in her is as human as the gods themselves, which are told in Greek myths. Along with the gods, a significant place in the myths is occupied by the deeds and exploits of "godlike heroes", who are often the main acting limes in the narrated events. In Greek mythology, mysticism is practically absent, mysterious, supernatural powers are not too important. The main thing in it is artistic imagery and poetry, playfulness. Greek mythology is much closer to art than religion. That is why she formed the foundation of the great Greek art. For the same reason, Hegel called the Greek religion "the religion of beauty."

Greek mythology, like all Greek culture, contributed to the glorification and exaltation not so much of the gods as of man. It is in the person of the Hellenes that man first begins to realize his boundless powers and possibilities. Sophocles remarks on this: “There are many great forces in the world. But there is nothing stronger than man in nature ”. The words of Archimedes sound even more meaningful: "Give me a fulcrum and I will turn the whole world over." In all this, the future European, transformer and conqueror of nature is already quite visible.

China is one of the most ancient states, the culture of which has its own characteristics and attracts millions of travelers from all over the world with its originality. The most ancient monuments of Chinese culture date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. It was in China that the remains of one of the most ancient human ancestors, Sinanthropus, who lived more than 400 thousand years ago, were found.

However, archaeological evidence suggests that civilization came to China later than to Egypt, India or Sumer - around the 11th millennium BC. For a long period, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC, there were no irrigation systems in China, and the civilization itself existed in a very isolated manner.

One of the first cultures of ancient China was the Yangshao culture - about 3 thousand years BC. Already during this period, the inhabitants of China build houses, buried in the ground, cultivate the land, tame animals, and master various crafts. There is documentary evidence of their pictographic writing skills. They praised the Sun, the Moon, various natural phenomena, extolling the cult of ancestors.

Chinese culture has a number of features. Remains of ceramic vessels - dishes, jugs, bowls - have survived to this day. The craftsmen decorated them with various geometric patterns and zoomorphic designs. In the II millennium, along with the formation of civilization, the culture of China undergoes great changes. This period is characterized by the collapse of primitive society and the formation of the first states. The remnants of the Shan city-state that have survived to this day indicate that already at that time the city had a clear layout and was surrounded by a 6-meter-thick adobe wall. The Shang ruler's palace stood on an adobe platform, towering over other buildings. Inside it were discovered stone sculptures of animals and people, wall paintings made in bright colors of red, white and black. The Shang era is characterized by the invention of bronze casting, the emergence of writing with hieroglyphs. On the remains of sacrificial animals, on tortoiseshell shields, one can see documentary evidence of this. At this time, the ideas of the Chinese about the afterlife changed significantly, the importance of the cult of ancestors grew. So, the tomb of the Shan ruler is distinguished by its two-tier, the presence in it of a whole arsenal of objects that can be "useful" to the ruler for the afterlife - chariots, weapons, household items made of bronze and jade, ceramics. The tomb was guarded by guards in the form of half-humans, half-beasts.

The cultural characteristics of China in the Bronze Age are characterized by increased belief in mythological and religious patrons. This is evidenced by the huge number of vessels made of bronze for sacrifices. The lids and handles of such vessels were carved in the shape of the heads of the most revered animals - a bull, tiger, ram, and dragon. The surface of such vessels was carved in the form of scales, which increased the magical effect of the sacrifice.

In the 1st millennium BC. the life of ancient China is changing in all areas of civilization. At the beginning of this period, the Shang rule changed to the rule of the Western Zhou, who also began to call themselves kings - "wang". It was during this period that the formation and ordering of the religious doctrine of the "divine" origin of all "van" ends. It was based on the mythological representation of this cult of Heaven as the highest deity. The first harmonious and unified ancient history of China was created, which was based on the cult of Chinese sages - the rulers of antiquity. Wang Zhou was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was credited with magical abilities - "de", which allowed him to be a mediator between Heaven and the people of China. They began to call him the lord of the Celestial Empire. Later, power passed to the Eastern Zhou - in the 8th century BC. The end of the first millennium BC is characterized by the predominance of cultural ethnocentrism, which subsequently flourished even more. The Huaxia ethnic group extols Chinese origins as the only ones worthy of respect and worship. All other peoples called themselves barbarians.

Characteristics of the culture of China

Ancient Chinese culture differs from other ancient cultures in its originality and uniqueness. Its rationalism, pragmatism and appeal to the values \u200b\u200bof real life on earth distinguish it significantly from Indian culture. Another of its main characteristic features is the huge role of traditions, rituals and ceremonies. This was the origin of the expression "Chinese ceremony". Chinese culture is closely related to religion and the worship of the divine forces of nature. The supreme deity for them is Heaven, the main temple is the Temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. The Chinese have worshiped the Sun and other luminaries, mountains and water elements since ancient times.

Dance pas The peculiarities of China are manifested in aestheticization and poetry. In China, landscape painting, architecture and lyrical works about nature appear earlier than anywhere else.

In civilization, a period begins when new centers of trade are actively growing, in cities the population is increasing by half a million. Iron and tools of everyday life from it appear in the course, crafts develop. For the first time, there are hydraulic structures that make it possible to actively develop agriculture.

The period from the 5th to the 8th century BC is called the period of the "Struggling Kingdoms", when there was a struggle for power between several strong kingdoms in China. The Qin kingdom played an important role in the development of China during this period. An unprecedented flowering of science and culture took place precisely during this period, also called the period of "rivalry of a hundred schools". A solar-lunar calendar was created, the length of the year was specified, a catalog of stars was created, the periods of lunar eclipses were calculated, and the theory of the movement of heavenly bodies - "Tao", was created. Great achievements are also taking place in the field of mathematics. The development of astronomy, geography, mathematics and philosophy leads to the development of skepticism towards religious beliefs. This can be proved by the treatise Questions to Heaven, which criticizes the mythological aspects of religion.
This period is also considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy. It is from here that the main currents of philosophy originate - Confucianism, Legism and Taoism.

Great Confucius and his followers

The great Kun Tzu lived from 551 to 479. BC, and the theme for his philosophical reflections chose the relationship between people. He believed that the path to peace and order lies through the observance of the norms and age-old traditions of the Chinese people. Confucius believed that the main task of a person's upbringing is to master certain norms and strict rules of behavior that can regulate relations between different groups of people, for example, between older and younger people, between people of different social level, between children and their parents and etc.

Confucius - the man who changed the world

He was categorically opposed to introducing everything new into relations, including reforms. In his opinion, only the ancient wisdom of ancestors can become the key to solving modern problems. Only the centuries-old experience of past generations and traditions will help a person find his place in life and accept the truth that a ruler should be a ruler, a father should be a father, and a son should be a son! Confucius viewed the state as a projection of the family, in which the main role, the main bearer of norms and rules, undoubtedly, is assigned to a wise ruler.

Confucius and his followers extended their teaching not only to religion and philosophy, but to the whole way of life. It helps to find the answer to any question, starting with the question of the meaning of life, and ending with any life situation. It was this doctrine that formed the basis of the ancient Chinese educational system, where the humanities were fundamental. Confucianism contributed to the formation of a broad class of educated officials in Chinese society, who made up a privileged elite. This teaching contributed to the development of cultural Chinese ethnocentrism.

Features of China - philosophical teaching Taoism

In the same period, another philosophical trend was formed in China - Taoism. Lao Tzu is considered its founder and spiritual leader. The main feature of this philosophy is the rejection of active life and contemplation of everything around. The main direction of this teaching is the study of the laws of nature and the observance of these laws. The doctrine is based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "path of nature" and the eternal variability of the world. Taoism, like the teachings of Confucius, goes beyond religion and philosophy, extending to the entire way of life. Much in this teaching is drawn from Buddhism and yoga, for example, breathing practices. The ultimate goal in this direction is to achieve immortality. Taoism preaches the theory of "non-action", including for the ruler, arguing that the best ruler is the one about which the people know only what he is.

One of the spheres of life where the interest of Taoism spread is natural science, astrology, and alchemy. Ultimately, the experiments of the alchemists led to the invention of gunpowder. The science of connecting outer space and the earth's surface led to the invention of the compass. Astrological predictions for all occasions have become very popular, and not a single self-respecting ruler made an important decision without the advice of a personal astrologer.

In addition, many of the principles of Taoism formed the philosophical basis of many Chinese martial arts, in particular wushu.

Legism - a philosophy of harsh law

The third influential philosophical movement in China was legalism. Initially, he was an opponent of the supporters of Confucianism, but later he almost completely entered this philosophical movement. The main fundamental criterion for creating a strong and strong state, according to the legists, is the observance of laws. They believed that morality and tradition could not be the basis for politics. They were supporters of strict discipline, obedience, and cruel punishment for wrongdoing. They developed a state system based on dictatorship. Almost until the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of a despotic state with elements of Confucianism was at the core of Chinese statehood.

Artistic culture of ancient China

In the era of the "Warring Kingdoms" many events of their artistic culture are celebrated. The range of themes that are reflected in art is expanding. It was at this time that the first architectural treatise "Zhouli" was created. It clearly sets out the basic principles of the architectural planning of the city, indicating the width of the roads, the dimensional parameters of buildings, and the thickness of the walls of buildings and structures.

The literary achievements of this period are marked by the famous "Book of Songs", which contains about three hundred songs and poems. The editorship of this literary monument is attributed to Confucius. Among the poets, Qu Yuan is known, who created both lyrical and tragic works. His "Ode to Sorrow" is widely known in China. The first praise of female beauty and the deep feeling of a man's love for a woman was Yu Sup.

The highest flowering of the culture of China reached in the period from the III century BC to the III century AD. The reason for this was extensive changes in all areas of life.

An adherent of legalism, the Minister of the Qin Kingdom, Shang Yang, initiated full-scale reforms in all areas of life. Thanks to him, a unified legislation appeared in the country, legal proceedings were developed, the inheritance of titles and privileges were abolished, and reforms were carried out in the army. In it, all chariots were replaced by cavalry, bronze weapons were replaced by iron ones. Tough discipline, strict order and subordination, cruel punishment and violence - these are the main principles by which the reforms were carried out. However, thanks to the implementation of all the reforms, the Qin kingdom was able to subjugate all the other "Struggling Kingdoms" and became a powerful centralized power. In 221 BC, the Qin ruler began to call himself the Qin Emperor. After 15 years, the Qin dynasty is replaced by the Han dynasty, which ruled until the very end of the existence of Ancient China, that is, until 220 AD. During this period, the Chinese Empire is considered one of the most powerful in the world. Its population is one fifth of the world's population (approximately 60 million people).

The country is changing before our eyes. Roads appear connecting cities with villages, agriculture is developing, which uses many new technologies for growing crops. Many canals are being built in the country, which have become an excellent cheap alternative to transport arteries. Trade is flourishing.

Music is one of the most important areas of Chinese culture

Crafts were widely developed. The Chinese Empire becomes the exclusive global supplier of silk. It is produced in large volumes and is becoming a major export commodity. The varnish invented in China has also gained wide recognition. It was used to cover weapons, various household items, combat gear, wood products, etc. The varnish not only perfectly protected the products from negative external influences, but also made them look beautiful. There is a lot of controversy about who first invented paper. The Chinese consider this invention to be their gift to all mankind. The first paper appeared in the period from the 2nd to the 1st century BC. Hieroglyphic writing is widely used and finds its distribution in Japan and Vietnam, Korea.

During the reign of these two dynasties, China established extensive trade relations with other countries. The “Great Silk Road” was of great importance, the total length of which was more than seven thousand kilometers. Trade caravans carried to India, the Mediterranean countries, Iran, and Central Asia not only high-quality silk, but also iron, varnishes, nickel, precious metals, bronze products, and ceramics.

Chinese philosophy has many features Ancient China went down in history as the founder of mathematical calculus with negative numbers, as mentioned in the treatise "Mathematics in Nine Books". Chinese scientists do not bypass astrology, new expanded maps of the starry sky are created, a celestial globe is being created. Medical science is replenished with 36 treatises that have collected complete information about diseases and methods of their treatment, the first pharmacological treatise is being created. A separate point worth noting is the invention of the world's first seismograph.

Ancient Chinese architects are distinguished by their special views on urban planning and building houses. One of the most famous architectural creations of this era was the Great Wall of China. The total length of this structure is more than six thousand kilometers. The wall near Beijing is between five and eight meters wide and ten meters high. Also, one of the grandiose architectural monuments of Ancient China is the burial of Emperor Qin-Shih-Huangdi. Its scale and content are amazing. Inside the underground palace-tomb, warriors made of ceramics, standing shoulder to shoulder, chariots and horses, ready to rush into battle at any second by order of the emperor, guard the emperor's peace. The clay army of thousands of soldiers is made in full size. China's national identity lies in a deep belief in the afterlife. That is why the burials of the greatest rulers were so vast and rich.

Inventions that China gave to the world

The most famous inventions that China discovered to the world are gunpowder, compass, silk, typography, paper, tea, porcelain, acupuncture, windmills, parachute, matches and much more. Sometimes the invention of this or that object occurs independently of each other in different parts of the world. There is evidence of the invention of a double boiler, a fork, various devices for cultivation, agriculture, etc.

National features of Chinese cuisine

In China, they love and know how to cook, while learning this can only be done from a master at home. There are no special establishments to teach the art of cooking. One of the features of Chinese cuisine is the preparation of vegetables. They are not served raw. Vegetables must be cooked. Like nowhere else, in China you can find cooked various insects - locusts, grasshoppers, ants, and snakes. As an exotic thing, you can taste chicken with sugar; the dish is sold in many stores. As for alcoholic beverages, in China it is not accepted to drink them without a serious reason. Families never drink at home. To do this, they gather in a bar and always have a company. One of their favorite drinks is beer, which has a special taste and is somewhat weaker than usual for Europeans (about 4 degrees). The Chinese love to "clink glasses" with everyone, with obligatory wishes.

Features of the culture of the population of China

In China, the majority of the male population smokes, women practically do not smoke. Vision problems occur in 70% of the population. Light skin is considered a woman's adornment, so sunbathing is not accepted in China. Many people consider the Chinese to be "narrow-eyed", while the Chinese themselves believe that their eye size corresponds to the inhabitants of European countries, and the whole problem is in the overhanging century. The proverb “Cleanly not where they clean, but where they don’t litter,” absolutely does not fit China. China is very clean only because it is constantly cleaned. The Chinese love to litter even more than our compatriots.

The population of China does not know what Vacation is. There is no such word in their everyday life. They are very hardworking and only rest on weekends. Only twice a year, this weekend is somewhat long - in February for Chinese New Year and in October, during the celebration of the founding of the PRC.

The surnames of the Chinese are not very diverse. There are about a hundred surnames in total. The most common surnames are Li and Wang. Due to the variety of dialects, it is very difficult to learn Chinese. There are about two hundred of them in total, and some of them more resemble a completely different language. The most popular dialect is "Mandarin". Due to its huge population, more people speak English in China than in America or England.

Nobody will invite you to visit in China, this is not accepted. You cannot hug and kiss a girl when you meet. Still, you should not be very emotional, raising your voice and gesturing, you can offend the Chinese with such a manifestation of feelings. If you want to hand over a business card to a Chinese person, then you should do it with both hands. In our usual understanding of the concept of "queue", the Chinese do not. "Who got up first - that and the slippers!" This is about China! Many Chinese people don't bother changing clothes in order to go to the store, so don't be surprised if you meet Chinese in pajamas in the store, this is the order of things. Older people in China often practice special gymnastics reminiscent of slow kung fu. They do it right on the street, without embarrassment, more often in the morning. If you decide to use public transport, then you will have to "huddle around", as there is no custom in China to first let people get out of it, and then sit down. China is famous for its Maglev high-speed train, which runs from Shanghai to the airport. For a long time, it was the fastest in the world, as it develops a speed of up to 413 km / h. The peculiarity of its movement is that it moves on a magnetic "cushion" without touching the rail.

Chinese medicine has a long history and is based on the study of the human body, on its biologically active points, its reactions when exposed to mechanical or other methods. The healing properties of the plants that grow in China have been studied by many generations of healers and have scientific evidence. Thousands of people come to China for healing every year.

What types of treatment can be found in Chinese clinics:

• acupuncture - the impact of special needles on biologically active points. Reflexology is a technique aimed at alleviating the patient's condition, at normalizing all processes in his body. This technique is widely used to treat diseases of a nervous nature, cardiovascular system, to strengthen the immune system, reduce pain, etc. It is in China that many clinics work to help children with cerebral palsy recover, to recover from severe accidents and injuries;
• classical massages, foot massage, using various devices (vacuum). Massage perfectly helps to cope with nervous tension, activates blood circulation, relieves pain and strengthens the immune system;
• mud therapy;
• clay treatment;
• scrubbing channels allows you to get rid of stagnant processes in the body;
• phytotherapy. Herbal teas, as a rule, are prepared individually for each patient, depending on his disease, on the severity of his condition and on his tolerance of certain ingredients. Herbal collections based on old recipes are created from raw materials grown in ecologically clean conditions. Baths for patients, various rinses and wraps, lotions and irrigation are also prepared from decoctions and herbal infusions;
• treatment with mineral springs;
• thermal water treatment.

For example, a visit to a resort in Baidakh perfectly restores the body's own defenses by strengthening its own immune system, through the use of ancient techniques of Chinese healers. Five mineral lakes with truly miraculous properties are the basis for the recovery of the Udalyanchi resort. If you want to combine relaxation in one of the cleanest places on the planet and unique wellness methods, then you should visit the resorts of Sanya. The famous thermal springs of this resort are known all over the world.

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Ancient Chinese writing

The development of writing as part of the culture of ancient China, briefly can be directly linked to inventions made at the beginning of time. The fact is that the first writing instruments consisted of a bamboo tablet and a pointed stick. But the invention of silk, brush and ink made the writing process more convenient and comfortable, the next impulse was the invention of paper. In the 15th century BC in the Middle Kingdom, about 2000 hieroglyphs were used to consolidate thoughts in writing. These hieroglyphs to this day form the basis of the writing of modern China.

Literature of ancient China

Thanks to the developed writing, many monuments of the literature of ancient China have survived to our times, for example, the "Book of Songs" compiled approximately in the 1st millennium BC. AD and containing 300 works. Thanks to the written monuments that have come down to us, the famous names of the first poet of Chinese civilization Qu Yuan, historians Sima Qian and Ban Gu, whose works for a long time in the development of Chinese culture in antiquity became a kind of standard of historical literature and classical Chinese prose.

Architecture, painting, applied arts

The Chinese, already in the 1st millennium BC, knew how to build buildings of several floors. The scheme was simple: a support of wooden posts, a roof covered with baked clay tiles. The peculiarity of such roofs was manifested in the upward curved edges, this style is called a pagoda. The Sun-yue-si pagoda and the Big Wild Goose Pagoda have survived to this day. The level of development of architecture and construction is evidenced by the fact that by the 3rd century BC, more than 700 palaces were rebuilt for the emperor and his entourage. A hall was built in one of the palaces, in which 10,000 people could simultaneously gather.
Simultaneously with the development of architecture, painting and applied arts also developed. A feature of the development of painting was the use of ink for drawing on paper, silk.
The jade and ivory carvings that have come down to our time cannot but cause admiration. The development of artistic ceramics was the forerunner of the appearance of porcelain.

The development of science in ancient China

Science as part of the cultural heritage of ancient China can be briefly described as a list of achievements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Ancient Chinese mathematicians studied and described the properties of a right-angled triangle, introduced the concept of negative numbers, studied the properties of fractions, described an arithmetic progression, and developed methods for solving systems of equations.
In the 1st century BC scientists of ancient China wrote a treatise "Mathematics in Nine Chapters", which collected all the knowledge accumulated in the Middle Kingdom.
The development of mathematics, respectively, gave impetus to the development of astronomy, in the II millennium BC. a year in the Celestial Empire was divided into 12 months, and a month, respectively, into 4 weeks (i.e., just like in our time). Astronomer Zhang Heng, in the II century BC, a celestial globe was created depicting the movement of stars and planets.
The development of knowledge in various fields of science led to the fact that, in the Middle Kingdom, a compass was invented, a water pump was invented and manufactured.

Music

At the turn of the century, a treatise "Yueji" was written in China, it summarized the ideas of ancient China about music. The beginning of musical development fell on the 1st millennium BC. A system of training musicians and dancers was organized. For this, the court board of Yuef was created. She dealt with, among other things, the regulation of writing and performing musical works. The musical culture of ancient China, in short, was under the control of the emperor.

The culture of Ancient China is not only one of the oldest in the history of mankind, but also one of the most unique and distinctive. For five thousand years, it has developed along its own path, far from other civilizations. The result of such a long and continuous process has become a rich cultural heritage, which is of great value to world culture.

Development of the culture of ancient China

The culture of Ancient China has a rich past, and the beginning of its formation is considered to be the 3rd century BC. e. She is characterized by a wealth of spiritual values, as well as amazing stamina. Despite endless wars, revolts and destruction, this civilization was able to preserve its ideals and main values.

Since the Chinese civilization existed in complete isolation until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., its culture acquired a number of unique features, which later only strengthened their position.

The peculiarities of the culture of Ancient China include:

• Pragmatism. The values \u200b\u200bof real earthly life are of the greatest importance.
• Great commitment to tradition.
• Deification and poeticization of nature. The central deity was Heaven, mountains and waters were in high esteem, which the Chinese had worshiped since ancient times.

Figure: 1. Nature in the art of Ancient China.

The worship of the forces of nature is reflected in the art of ancient China. This is how the landscape direction in painting, architecture and literature arose and became widespread in the country. Only Chinese culture is characterized by such a deep aesthetic penetration into the natural world.

Writing and literature

The writing system of Ancient China can be safely called unique. Unlike the alphabetical system, each character - a hieroglyph - has its own meaning, and the number of hieroglyphs reaches several tens of thousands. In addition, ancient Chinese writing is the oldest, with the exception of rock paintings.

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Originally, the texts were written on wooden tablets with thin bamboo sticks. They were replaced by soft brushes and silk fabric, and then paper - the most important invention of ancient China. From that moment on, writing moved to a new stage of development.

Figure: 2. Ancient Chinese writing.

Fiction was held in high esteem, and historical and philosophical works were of the greatest value. The collection "Shijing", which includes 305 poetic works, has become a real treasure trove of ancient Chinese poetry.

Architecture and painting

A distinctive feature of architecture in ancient China is the complexity of the buildings. While many ancient peoples erected artless one-story buildings, the Chinese already in the 1st millennium BC. e. knew how to build two- and three-story buildings that required certain mathematical knowledge. The roofs were covered with tiles. Each building was decorated with wooden and metal plaques with symbols of prosperity, health and wealth.

Many ancient architectural structures had a common feature - raised roof corners, due to which the roof visually looked curved downward.

Much attention in ancient China was paid to the construction of monasteries, carefully carved into the rocks, and multi-tiered towers - pagodas. The most famous is the seven-story Wild Goose Pagoda, which is 60 meters high.

Figure: 3. Monasteries carved into the rocks.

All painting of Ancient China, as well as other types of art, is imbued with admiration for the beauty of nature and the harmony of the Universe, it is filled with contemplation and symbolism.

In Chinese painting, the genres "flowers-birds", "people", "mountains-waters" were very popular, which for many years did not lose their relevance. Each depicted object carried a certain meaning. For example, pine symbolized longevity, bamboo - resilience, and the stork - loneliness.

What have we learned?

While studying the topic "Culture of Ancient China", we learned what factors influenced the development of the original and unique ancient Chinese culture. Having learned briefly about the culture of Ancient China, we have identified the characteristic features of architecture, writing, painting, literature.

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Archaeological research has established that the territory of China has been inhabited since the time of the Lower Paleolithic. It is in China that the most ancient remains of a fossil man (Sinanthropus) were found together with primitive stone tools. Favorable natural conditions of eastern China contributed to the fact that agriculture appeared in the valley of the Yellow River and its tributaries very early - already from the 3rd millennium BC. Then states arose here, which, along with Egypt, Mesopotamia and India, were the earliest centers of culture and art in the history of mankind.

The cultural history of Ancient China spans a long period of about five millennia of its existence. At present, a unified point of view has not yet been developed on the course of the socio-economic development of ancient Chinese society. According to some researchers, slaveholding relations that had developed by the 2nd millennium BC, already in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. replaced by feudal relations. Another part of the researchers, the entire ancient period, including the Han (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD), refers to the slave formation. In any case, for the history of art, it is important to note that, although in the culture and art of China since the middle of the 1st millennium BC. new features appear, which receive a distinct development in the art of the Han period, it is still closely connected with the traditions of the entire preceding time. A very important feature of the culture of China is that since ancient times, since its inception, it has developed continuously, preserving many of the most ancient cultural centers over the centuries. This largely determined the stability of traditions in the art of China. A peculiar artistic style developed in China very early, and, despite the changes that took place over the subsequent time, some of its characteristic features did not change throughout the development of art - from ancient times to the present day.

The culture of Ancient China has reached a high level. Already in very ancient times, Chinese scientists made many important discoveries in the field of astronomy, mathematics, medicine and other sciences. In the 2nd millennium BC. hieroglyphic writing already existed in China. A little later, the compass was invented, and then the seismograph. In the middle of the first millennium BC. the world's first stellar catalog was compiled, numbering 800 luminaries. Literature and art reached great heights. The achievements of the first art formed the basis of the national artistic tradition of China and were of great importance for the development of the art of many other peoples.

The culture of Ancient China reached its greatest flowering in the Qin and Han periods, when the unification of the scattered ancient Chinese kingdoms into a single Chinese state took place for the first time.

The oldest monuments of art in China date back to the 3rd millennium BC. - the time of existence of the primitive communal system. At present, many Neolithic sites have been found throughout China. The largest of these agricultural settlements are found in the modern provinces of Gansu, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang. The Neolithic culture of the so-called painted pottery discovered here is most clearly characterized by the Yangshao-type pottery, named after the original excavation site, carried out in the 1920s. in Henan province. Archaeological research, which is being carried out especially intensively at the present time, has discovered many tools and painted polished vessels in burials and in places of ancient dwellings, giving an idea of \u200b\u200bthe highest stage of development of the Neolithic culture. Painted ceramic vessels of a wide variety of shapes were made by hand or on a potter's wheel. These are either sharp-bottomed vessels with a narrow neck, or wide rounded vases with a low neck and two handles, or bowls expanding upward; some vessels are similar in shape to Greek amphorae. The vessels were fired at high temperatures; painting on them was usually performed on a gray, brownish or reddish clay background with purple, red, black, yellow and white paints. In rare cases, the entire background was filled with black paint and only the ornament remained light.

Vases, bowls and burial urns made on a potter's wheel are distinguished by the correctness of shape, subtlety and beauty of the pattern, great perfection of execution, while the vessels made by hand are coarser and often devoid of painting. The pattern sometimes covers almost the entire surface of the vessel and usually consists of a geometric ornament dominated by rhythmically repeating spiral curls, a net and checkerboard pattern, often enclosed in circles, rhombuses, triangles, etc. This pattern is organically related to the shape of the vessel. In low vessels, the pattern covers the upper part to the middle, emphasizing the squat and roundness; in higher vessels, the impression of elongation and slenderness of the form is enhanced by zigzag lines located vertically. The ornament had a magical meaning and was probably associated with the ideas of the ancient Chinese about the forces of nature: it is assumed, for example, that zigzag lines and sickle-shaped signs were conventional images of the moon and lightning, which later passed into Chinese hieroglyphs. Round vessels with three legs ("li") found among Yangshao ceramics and some others have retained their shape and cult purpose in China for many centuries.

By the 3rd millennium BC. The so-called Longshan culture, discovered during excavations of ancient sites, mainly in the provinces of Shandong, Shanxi and Henan, also belongs. Many ceramic items of high quality workmanship were discovered here. These black polished vessels, devoid of painting, very thin and fragile, amaze with a variety of shapes and graceful proportions. There are tripods of the same type as the Yangshao vessels "li" and "ding", as well as various plates, bowls, cups, etc.

As a result of modern excavations, it can be concluded that the wide territorial distribution and high level of China's Neolithic cultures.

The next period, dating back to the 2nd millennium BC, is studied in more detail) known as Shang or Yin - by the names of the tribes that inhabited the territory of China mainly in the Yellow River valley in the northeast of the present Henan province, and also, according to the latter archaeological sites, and within eastern and northwestern China. At this time, the formation of a class slave-owning society in China took place and the first state arose, headed by the "Wans" - former tribal leaders who gradually turned into kings-despots. The economy was still very primitive, but the main occupation of the population was already agriculture, although fishing and hunting played an even greater role. Cities arose in which craft developed; primitive forms of exchange between tribes arose. Many features of the tribal system have been preserved in the structure of society; rural communities continued to exist, each with its own family name.

During the Shang (Yin) period, the first fortified settlements appeared. Excavations near Anyang, carried out in 1928-1937, revealed the remains of a large city, possibly the capital of the Shang (Yin) state. The city had the correct layout of the quarters. The buildings were erected on an artificial earth platform.

Densely compacted earth and wood were used as building materials for residential buildings and palace structures, sometimes stone was used. Only the foundations of the buildings and the remains of the walls with which the courtyards were built have survived. The structures themselves and the shape of the roofs can only be judged by the pictograms that have come down to us depicting houses and watchtowers. The buildings had high gable roofs, the material for which may have been straw, since no remnants of tiles or wooden coverings were found. The palace in Anyang was a fairly large rectangular building (about 30 m long and 9 m wide). Inside the building, there were 3 rows of columns, the bases of which were cut stone blocks and bronze discs dug into the earthen platform. Thus, historical and archaeological data allow us to conclude that during the Shang (Yin) period, some architectural techniques and forms were already developed, which formed the basis for the further development of ancient Chinese architecture.

This is confirmed by the data of new archaeological research conducted since 1950 in the Anyang region. Excavations have revealed a large number of remains of dwellings, on the outskirts of the city were found settlements of artisans, workshops for bronze and ceramists, in the middle of the city a cobblestone road was discovered with the remains of stone foundations of houses at the edges.

In the 2nd millennium BC. the ancient religion of the Chinese was further developed, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Yangshao culture. This religion was expressed in the deification of the phenomena and forces of nature: the sun, moon, earth, mountains and rivers. The sky was considered the supreme deity. These ideas were reflected in the hieroglyphic writing that had developed by that time and in the visual arts.

Sacrifices were made to the spirits of nature and prayers were arranged. The highest priestly functions belonged to the "van" himself.

The cult of ancestors also acquired great importance, in connection with which a strict burial ritual was developed. Numerous objects were placed in the grave of the deceased, which were supposed to accompany and protect him in the afterlife. Excavations in Anyang have uncovered a large number of tombs of people from a wide variety of backgrounds. The decoration and inventory of the tombs indicate the presence of class stratification. The tombs of the kings contain a particularly large number of various household items, bronze and ceramic items, and marble sculptures. Only clay vessels and rough utensils were placed in the graves of people of common origin.

The tombs of the nobility were enormous in size. One of the tombs discovered near Anyang covers an area of \u200b\u200b340 square meters. m, and its volume reached 1615 cubic meters. m. Inside the tomb was laid out with logs tightly fitted to each other. The room consisted of entrances with stairs, the lower hall, where the sarcophagus was placed, and the upper one, where various objects were placed, as well as the corpses of people and animals that accompanied the deceased to the afterlife. At the entrances to the tomb, horses and dogs killed during the burial were buried. It was believed that dogs should guard the tomb, horses - to carry chariots in the afterlife. No burial mounds or buildings were built on the surface. The walls and ceilings of the rich tombs were covered with carvings, inlays and paintings. The painting was done, most likely, with red paint (traces of it were found). The motives for the ornamentation of the tombs were conventional images of animals, reminiscent of patterns on bronze vessels.

All objects that were placed in the tombs were associated with certain religious beliefs and had a purpose already established by tradition. This also applies to sculptures. In Anyang, marble figures of fantastic creatures were found: a tiger man and a predatory horned beast "taote" - a symbol of supernatural power, traditionally depicted as a geometrized symmetrically constructed mask with round eyes on a flat face, horns and fangs in the form of curls. The tiger-man statue was supposed to scare away evil demons from the grave. This fantastic image emphasizes ferocity and strength; a bared mouth with wide massive fangs, hands with tiger claws resting on the knees, a stable motionless posture are clearly terrifying. The entire figure of the "tiger", which is a stone block with smoothly hewn sides and slightly rounded corners, is dotted with a flat magical ornament consisting of spiral-like curls. Another stone sculpture is covered with a similar ornament in the form of a seated man, tightly wrapping his bent legs with his hands and burying his head in his knees. It is believed that this almost round heavy stone block, very conditionally conveying the shape of the human body, served as the base of a column in the Anyang Palace.

The most numerous among the works of art of the Shang (Yin) period are bronze items, especially bronze vessels for household and cult purposes found in burials. In style, they are very close to the sculpture of that time. However, the shapes and patterns of the vessels are distinguished by much greater perfection and virtuoso technical skill, testifying to an already mature artistic tradition. Sometimes the drawing on the vessels is so thin and complex that it can only be viewed with a magnifying glass. The grave goods of the Shang (Yin) period characterize the mature stage of the Bronze Age in China. The transitional stage from stone tools to bronze is still unknown. The amazing craftsmanship and elaboration of every detail on the bronze items were achieved by the casting technique that was perfect for that time. In Anyang and Zhengzhou, several casting molds have been found recently, which made it possible to establish the method of making ancient bronze vessels. Initially, an accurate model of a clay vessel was made. After firing, according to this model, a mold was made from a special refractory clay, onto which the reverse pattern was imprinted. The presence of convex seams on bronze vessels indicates that the shape was not monolithic, but consisted of separate, precisely fitted parts, the number of which depended on the type of vessel. Bronze melted in special cauldrons filling the space between the two walls was poured into a mold assembled and coated with wet clay on top. After casting, the mold was broken and was no longer used. The level of foundry production in the Shang (Yin) period can also be judged by the fact that some vessels reach a weight of 600 - 650 kg, for which bronze was melted in several boilers at once.

The vessels, in accordance with their purpose, had certain traditional forms, many of which date back to the Neolithic. However, it was in the Shan time that that ornamental artistic style began to take shape, the features of which were preserved in the future for centuries. Such are the "jue" - a vessel on three legs diverging from top to bottom, decorated with a relief pattern; "Gu" - tall, slender, widening up and down, intended for sacrificial libations; the Din vessel - in the form of a wide bowl with three legs; "Gui" - boilers with two handles, intended for cooking food. In addition, there were many other various vessels: basins for washing with images of fish and snakes inside, polished bowls that replaced mirrors, tall jugs, etc. All these vessels found in burials were usually used for sacrificial ceremonies or for cooking. Some of the vessels were made specifically for burials. They are easy to distinguish: they were made either without a bottom or with a soldered lid, made of low quality metal and were poor in design.

Usually, bronze vessels are covered with symbolic images on the outside, and inside they have hieroglyphic inscriptions - dedication or indicating the name of the owner. The content of the art of the Shang (Yin) period is still little known, its symbolic images are far from reality. The representations embodied in them are conveyed in an abstract form. The most common patterns on vessels are thunder and clouds conventionally depicted in the form of thin spirals, as well as motifs of fantastic and semi-fantastic animals, including dragons, placed against the background of clouds and symbolizing the power of the forces of nature. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, these images had a magical meaning and were supposed to contribute to obtaining favorable weather, rains and harvests from the spirits of nature.

In the pattern of bronze vessels of the Shang (Yin) period, a more convex ornament stands out against the background of very small, thin lines, from which figures and heads of animals, made in high relief, stand out sharply. The arrangement of the pattern on the surface, with its amazing complexity and dynamism of the pattern, is always strictly symmetrical and corresponds to the structural features of the vessel. At this time, canonized iconographic methods of depicting certain symbols and representations were already developed, which the master used to create any work of art, sometimes using them only for decorative purposes.

One of the typical Shang (Yin) periods is the "yu" vessel, intended for the storage of sacrificial wine, - high, widening downward, with a lid and a loop-shaped handle. Stripes of a pattern divide the surface of the vessel horizontally into several parts, vertically the vessel is divided by strongly protruding seams. Such a strict division, as well as the complete symmetry of the drawing, bring clarity and rhythm to the construction of the form. The entire vessel is decorated with an unusually small monotonous geometric ornament, along which, as in the background, are placed convex images of running dragons and birds with their backs turned towards each other (possibly symbolizing the wind). In dragons, muzzles, paws, and tails are rendered in rhythmically repeating geometrized curls that give the impression of continuous movement. The relief on the vessels, as it were, gradually grows from very low to higher and gets its completion in the volumetric images crowning the vessel lid and the ends of the handle. Usually these are images of horned animals, possibly a sacrificial bull. The combination of differently interpreted patterns, creating rich decorative effects, is a characteristic feature of bronze items from the Shang (Yin) period. Arrows, knives, axes and other bronze items used in war, in everyday life and for sacrifices and made in large quantities during the Shan period are decorated with similar symbolic patterns. The axes are depicted with "taote" masks. The knives on the blunt side are decorated with figures of running animals or simply rhythmically repeating patterns that form like lace with their bizarre curves. The blade is covered with a dragon motif. Knife handles are often inlaid with turquoise. Bright blue convex pieces of turquoise, protruding against the background of bronze among the thinnest network of ornament, create subtle colorful combinations.

During the Shang (Yin) period, the technique of stone and bone carving was also quite high. The beautiful translucent and unusually hard jade stone was used to make ritual objects intended for cult ceremonies and luxury goods. Apparently, a pattern was initially applied to the surface of the stone, along which a diamond was carved or holes were drilled. Then the jade was polished with raw sand.

Many different objects made of jade were found in the Shan burials. These are weapons, earrings, ornaments in the form of fish, birds and animals, skillfully carved, covered with ornament characteristic of that time and smoothly polished.

White ceramic vessels, fragments of which were found in large numbers near Anyang, are distinguished by their great originality. Few whole vessels were found. White ceramics are characterized by a thin shard, slightly yellowish on the surface and at the fracture. The shapes are very diverse and differ from bronze in greater smoothness, roundness and softness. White ceramics were made of kaolin clay, covered with a stamped pattern and fired in special furnaces at temperatures above 1000 °. The pattern was restored after firing with bronze tools. The character of the ornament is close to bronze, but on ceramic vessels it is flatter and less dynamic. It is dominated by geometric linearity. White ceramics are beautiful for the perfection of clear ornamentation, combined with the same clarity and clarity of the shapes of the vessels.

In general, the monuments of art of the Shang (Yin) period testify to the high artistic skill for their time and the addition of a kind of ornamental style, the traditions of which were further developed in the subsequent period of Chinese history, called Zhou, after the tribe that conquered the Shang (Yin) state in 12th century BC.

The Zhou period, covering the time from the 12th to the 3rd century. BC, in economic and political relations was not uniform and in turn is divided into a number of historical stages, the most significant of which were the periods of Chunqiu (722 - 481 BC) and Zhangguo (480 - 221 years . BC.). By the beginning of the first millennium BC. in China, the ancient Eastern despotism finally took shape and a large and strong kingdom was formed. At the head of the dominant landowning aristocracy were kings who ruled the country with the help of numerous officials. Together with the further development of agriculture, crafts were improved. At this time, there were already large state craft workshops, where slaves worked under the supervision of special officials. The role of trade has also greatly increased. The products of handicraft workshops went to the market, and there was an exchange between cities. The Zhou culture adopted and developed much of the Shang (Yin) culture - writing, architectural techniques, religious beliefs. Art monuments dating back to this time are only now being seriously studied on the basis of the latest archaeological research carried out by Chinese scientists.

During the Zhou period, urban planning developed, which basically continued to exist in China in the future, undergoing only minor changes. The Zhou city was surrounded by a quadrangular fortress wall, the side of which reached 9 li ( Li \u003d 576 m) in length. In the center of the capital city, there was an imperial palace, also surrounded by a wall, to the east and west of which there were temple buildings for performing rituals in honor of agriculture. From south to north and from west to east, the city was crossed by 9 wide streets "9 chariots each wide". Palace buildings, as in the Shan period, were erected on high earthen rammed platforms and had wide roofs on pillars. According to this principle, the capital of the Zhou state was built, located west of modern Luoyang. The early stage in the development of the Zhou culture is still insufficiently studied, but there is reason to believe that at the very beginning of the Zhou period, artistic traditions have not yet undergone major changes. From this time came vessels, the shapes of which are not much different from the Shan ones. But already starting from the 9th - 8th centuries. BC. there were noticeable changes. During this period, along with the great growth of bronze casting, a certain stabilization and simplification of the forms of bronze vessels occurred in comparison with the Shan ones. Some of them, for example "jue", have become rare, some have changed greatly. A number of completely new forms have appeared. Along with luxurious cult vessels, cheaper ones were made, made of lead, which were extremely rare in the Shang (Yin) period. Changes took place in art gradually and manifested themselves in the growth of greater rigor in patterns and forms. The patterns have become smaller and more prominent. Images of animals, which in the Shan period stood out on the surface of the vessel as independent ornamental details, now acquired a more subordinate character. The ornament located in belts is now sometimes almost completely absent or fills a small part of the surface of the vessel. The image of the "taote" mask and other fantastic motives characteristic of the Shan symbolic ornament have almost disappeared. The character of the inscriptions on the vessels has also changed. Shan inscriptions are usually laconic in content and strict in style. Among the Zhou there are long inscriptions, quite different in style depending on the place where the bronze was made. This difference in the style of writing hieroglyphs indicates the great development and widespread distribution of writing at this time. The inscriptions say to whom, for what merits the vessel is given, who made it, sometimes the place of manufacture is also reported.

Typical of the early art of Zhou is the bronze vessel "gui" intended for sacrifices, rising on a massive base and having two far protruding handles on the sides. Its middle part is decorated with corrugated vertical stripes, usual for Zhou bronze. The upper and lower belts are filled with a pattern in the form of dragons and animal muzzles slightly protruding against this background. Heavy round handles in the form of very generalized animal figures emphasize the heaviness and squatness of the vessel.

Zhou vessels are often shaped like animals or birds. An example of such zoomorphic vessels is an owl-shaped vessel. The image of an owl in Ancient China was endowed with various symbolic content: a harbinger of death, a guardian of tombs from fire, etc. The vessel was intended for storing wine; the bird's head served as a cover. A predatory curved beak, protruding ears, round eyes and a characteristic fit of the body on strong legs speak of an approach to nature and the well-known observation of the master. But he revises his model, proceeding from the cult purpose of the vessel and the canonical rules of depiction dating back to the Shan tradition. The whole body of the bird is covered with a geometric ornament, conventionally conveying plumage: the wriggling bodies of dragons are depicted on the wings, indicated by a convex spiral-shaped stripe. Bronze vessels in the form of tapirs, elephants, rams, as well as various jade products, which were made in large quantities during the Zhou period, also had religious and symbolic significance.

Especially many were found in burials of polished “bi” disks, symbolizing the sky, which the ancient Chinese thought was flat and round. It is assumed that disks like “bi” in more ancient times had only a utilitarian purpose and were used as plumb lines when spinning threads, and then among the nobility they were given the meaning of a symbol presented to the emperor as a sign of respect. The Zhou period discs were made from a variety of jade rocks and were covered with patterns of dragons and beasts, or decorated with small round bumps.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. in the economic and cultural life of ancient China, great changes took place. The replacement of stone and bronze tools with iron ones opened up new opportunities for the development of agriculture and crafts. There was a gradual expansion of cities and an increase in the urban population. Handicraft production and trade expanded greatly. Private ownership of land developed, gradually replacing communal land tenure. In the 5th century. BC. the state of Zhou split into a number of separate kingdoms, in connection with which this period was named Zhanguo, that is, the "Fighting Kingdoms". The exploitation of the toiling masses increased considerably, and frequent wars also contributed to their impoverishment. At the end of the Zhou period, popular uprisings broke out constantly. One of the largest in Chinese history was the Dao Zhe uprising.

Under the conditions of the intensified class struggle, both the idealistic and materialistic trends of Chinese philosophy emerged, which had great significance for the entire subsequent history of China.

The materialistic teaching of Yang Zhou (5th - 4th centuries BC) was progressive, denying the existence of the afterlife and supernatural forces and arguing that everything in nature occurs with natural laws. The teachings of Lao Tzu (who lived in the 6th century BC), spread in the 4th century. BC, also contained naively materialistic ideas about the world that had arisen in ancient times. According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, the world is subject to the law of "Tao", that is, the laws of nature itself, which is in constant motion and change. A person must follow these laws as a natural necessity. The teachings of Lao Tzu, which emerged as progressive, gradually turned into the dogmatic system of Taoism, which brought to the fore the idealistic and mystical elements - in particular, the call for inactive contemplation and avoiding struggle. Of great importance in the history of Chinese culture was the philosophical system of Confucius, who created the ethical and political doctrine of the relationship between people in the family and society. The teachings of Confucius were later used by the ruling classes to assert the inviolability of social order, the obligatory performance by a person of traditional rituals, admiration for elders in rank and age. It also borrowed ancient religious concepts: belief in the spirits of nature, the cult of ancestors, etc.

In the 5th - 3rd centuries. BC. literature developed significantly. During this period, following such folklore works as the book of ancient folk songs "Shijing", literature was created that already had an individual author. The advanced tendencies of ancient Chinese literature were especially fully embodied in the work of the poet Qu Yuan, who sought to bring the official book language closer to the spoken language.

In the fine arts of China in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. there have also been very significant changes and shifts. In art, the range of plots and themes has become much wider and more diverse: along with abstract symbolism, images of people and real animals are created. New types of art appear, technique and skill become more complicated and enriched. With the further development of handicrafts and trade, numerous workshops (ceramic, bronze casting, etc.) arose in the cities of various kingdoms; in which products were made for the life of local rulers and nobility. Excavations begun in 1950 by Chinese archaeologists in Henan, Hunan and other regions of China have enriched knowledge of the culture and art of China during the Zhangguo period (480-221 BC). Near the city of Changsha, a large number of monuments have been discovered that clearly testify to the changes that took place in art and the high level of culture of that time.

The oldest known silk painting in China was found in one of the burials. From its artistic level, it can be concluded that painting existed in earlier periods, but, judging by the general nature of the art of the early Zhou, it was probably much more conventional and abstract. It should be noted that the poet Qu Yuan in the poem "Questions to Heaven" asks about the content of the murals of ancient palaces he saw, the meaning of which he already did not understand. A painting from Changsha depicts a woman in typical clothing of that era, with wide embroidered sleeves hanging down and fluttering long flaps. The woman's face is turned in profile; dark hair is adorned with jewels or ribbons. The figure is executed in a graphic manner completely flat, but, despite this convention, the artist vividly conveys the character of movement and gesture. This painting is of particular interest because it is the oldest depiction of a real person in Chinese art. It is believed that the image is a portrait of the deceased buried in this burial.

The scene shown in the picture has a mythological content. In the upper part above the figure of a woman there are two fighting fantastic creatures: a phoenix and a wriggling snake-like monster - the dragon Kui, which has become a symbol of evil. Their duel symbolizes the struggle between life and death. The ideological-figurative content of the picture differs from the Shan and early Chou symbolism, since it touches upon large philosophical topics that are characteristic of the worldview of this Epoch. Accordingly, the style of painting also changed. The fantastic appearance of the phoenix, courageously rushing at the monster, is imbued with great expression and, despite the stylization, is endowed with the features observed by the artist in the movements and habits of real birds.

The style and content of the applied arts are significantly different from the previous periods: small sculptures, bronze, jade and ceramics. Many new, previously unseen art products are being produced, for example, mirrors smelted out of high-quality bronze, polished with mercury. On the reverse side, the mirrors were decorated with intricate and delicate ornamentation, gilded and sometimes painted. Many new forms of bronze vessels also appear. Vessels from the time of Zhangguo are distinguished by great grace and harmony, virtuoso subtlety of ornament. They are alien to the massiveness and ponderousness that characterize many products of previous eras. Even with a significant size, they give the impression of lightness, their walls are very thin, the proportions are elongated. Various types of inlay with precious stones, non-ferrous metals - copper and silver - as well as gilding were used in large numbers to decorate them. Often the vessels were smelted not as monolithic ones, but consisted of separate parts soldered with tin. The ornament is often very flat. For the finest small drawings, the engraving technique was used. In the inscriptions on the vessels of this time, a striving for the unity of the composition appears. The inscriptions are no longer made together with the vessels, but are engraved later.

An example of bronze from the Zhangguo period is a vessel of the "hu" type, which is a tall, smooth, slender jug \u200b\u200bwith two handles attached to rings and a low graceful neck. The entire vessel from throat to base is filled with engraved ornament. The pattern is still located in horizontal belts and is vertically divided by seams, but not accented, but by thin graphic lines protruding on the surface. The character of the pattern is completely new, although the arrangement of the ornament retains the old principles of composition. The plots are various scenes of animals fighting and hunting. On some belts are depicted hunters with swords and bows attacking wild, violently fighting animals, on others - birds devouring snakes, or fighting fantastic winged monsters. To destroy the compositional monotony, the artist divides the plot scenes with several ornamental friezes with larger geometric patterns running in the center and at the throat of the vessel. This is a traditional motif of rhythmically repeated large curls.

The people and animals depicted are extremely dynamic. Despite the flatness and schematism of the figures, their gestures are very expressive and vital. Many animals, for example a bull wounded by an arrow, steeply bent its horned head and rushing at a person, or a long-legged bird that seizes a snake wriggling in front of it with a curved strong beak, are executed with a great deal of realism. In these images, bizarre, fantastic, ancient motives are constantly intertwined with a lively and direct observation of nature. Similar features are characteristic of another bronze "hu" (from a burial in Henan province), very tall (more than 0.5 m in height), standing on two figures of writhing dragons with an open mouth and long protruding tongues. In style, it is close to the traditions of the past. It is covered with a sinuous, slightly convex ornament, from the intricate bends of which horned twisted dragons seem to fly out, whose voluminous bodies serve as handles, and also decorate the surface of the vessel, making it alive and mobile. This amazing dynamism of form and pattern is complemented by sharp openwork teeth diverging in different directions, crowning the edges of the lid, and a sculptural figure of a thin-legged stork, standing in the center at the very top, with its wings wide open. The bird's appearance is so realistic, the flapping of its wings is so natural that it anticipates the examples of Chinese art of much later times. In this vessel, one can again note the combination of the most unbridled fantasy with very pronounced realistic features, characteristic of the Zhangguo period.

Genre motifs also appear, although they are still rather arbitrary. So, on the walls of a thin, almost like a paper sheet, round bronze bowl, discovered by excavations in 1950 - 1951. in Hoixian County, everyday scenes are engraved. Depicted are architectural structures with roofs laid out, apparently, with tiles, with wooden columns; around the entire field of the bowl - people are engaged in various activities: some are driving cattle, others are hunting, others are harvesting, etc. These scenes are not devoid of narrative in the depiction of various pictures of life. Despite the schematism of the image, convention and symbolism appear here in a completely different form than before. Man and his life already occupy a definite place in art. These new features are only just emerging in the Zhanguo period and are sometimes closely intertwined with the traditions of the past. They develop only in subsequent eras.

The figures of animals in Zhangguo's art are made with a much greater degree of realism than people. From the Zhanguo period, many wooden, clay and bronze small sculptures have survived, depicting animals used as sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors, and along with other utensils, there are many vessels in the form of various animals.

An example of such a sculpture is a bronze vessel in the form of a sacrificial animal, in the depiction of which all the same fiction and reality that is characteristic of this time dominates. The artist created the appearance of a fictional animal associated with certain religious and symbolic representations of the animal. He has a stocky, dense body, soft long ears and short legs with round strong hooves. The whole body and muzzle are covered with a beautiful pattern inlaid with silver and gold. Despite the fact that the image as a whole is fantastic, it strikes with great freedom, softness and plasticity in the interpretation of the body. Here, as it were, collected and summarized the correctly observed features of various real animals.

Artistic lacquer products dating back to this time and jade products are distinguished by great perfection.

Lacquer trays, coasters, various bowls, vases and toilet boxes, graceful in shape, are rich and bright in colorful combinations and are covered with surprisingly delicate ornaments. The technique of lacquerware in the Zhangguo period is already quite high. Usually layers of varnish were applied to a wood, leather or canvas base. In cases where fabric was used as a basis, a wooden model was made, which was removed after repeated varnishing of the base. As an example of such a technique, one can cite a lacquered toilet box, found during excavations near Changsha. The box is very light, with very thin walls, covered, like most similar items of that time, mainly with red, black and white varnish. Various genre motives are depicted: talking people, a galloping horse, carrying a chariot with people.

The patterned lacquer dish also found near Changsha has a different character. Brick red and black stripes are arranged in circles around it. The strikingly thin, precise and flexible lines of the design testify to the mature and high skill of ornamentation. In the center, on a black background, there are openwork silver-gray curls spinning like a whirlwind, intertwining with each other and forming complex combinations of various round lines closed in a circle. There is no depiction of living beings here. The ornament is distinguished from the previous periods by the absence of the previous geometrization and schematics, deviation from canonical rules and norms, great lightness and grace.

As a rule, luxury goods were made from jade during this period. This stone, according to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, had the property of protecting the soul and body. In the burials of the Zhanguo period, numerous jade items were found: heng-type breast ornaments in the form of an openwork semicircle with a relief carved pattern, ritual “bi” discs, earrings and belt buckles.

One of the best decorations is the one discovered by excavations in 1950-1952. in Hoixian County, Henan Province, a belt buckle that has survived in excellent condition. It consists of three very thin jade discs surrounded by intertwining plates of gold and a dark metal, possibly iron. The jade narrow end of the buckle is made in the shape of a dragon's head. The variety of colors and jewelry subtlety of work amazes in this product. On each of the three jade discs, openwork signs depicting clouds are carved in low relief, and patterned and convex blue glasses are inserted in the center; each gold plate is embossed. The skill of the finest processing and ornamentation of art products reached brilliant development during the Zhangguo period and in many ways surpassed the previous and subsequent periods of the development of ancient art.

A similar example of masterful ornamentation is a carved wooden board, found in one of the rich burials near Changsha and apparently served as a bed for the deceased.

From the Zhanguo period, the first Chinese painted ceramic vessels survived. The painting was applied to them with bright mineral paints after firing. Various animals were depicted on ceramic vessels, or the ornament characteristic of that time was located in belts, somewhat more juicy and large than on bronze items.

The most grandiose architectural structure of this time was the "Great Wall of China", the beginning of the construction of which dates back to the 4th - 3rd centuries. BC. ... The wall was built along the northern border of China and was intended to protect the country from the raids of nomads, and also protected the fields from the desert sands. The construction site of the Chinese Wall is considered to be the northeastern region of China. Along the mountain ranges stretching to the west and south, this mighty fortress was founded.

In the beginning, the wall was not uniform. Its construction was carried out in parts and irregularly, in separate kingdoms of the Zhanguo period. Only at the end of the 3rd century. BC, after the unification of the country, the scattered parts of the wall were joined together. Its original length was approximately 750 km; after various extensions carried out over the centuries, it has exceeded 3000 km.

The Chinese Wall is truly one of the most majestic ancient monuments of world architecture. Along the inaccessible bare steep and wild mountain peaks, it sometimes rises almost vertically, as if merging with the mighty and harsh nature, forms bizarre loops and goes infinitely far in a wide white strip that separates the mountains from the plains. In terms of its grandiose scale, severity and monumentality, this structure can be compared with the Egyptian pyramids. When inspecting the Great Wall of China, one can especially feel the gigantic, titanic mass of human strength, will, labor and energy that was required to create it. The builders of the wall adhered to the rule to lead it only along rugged mountain ranges, so it often forms such steep loops that the distance between two sections of the wall through the gorge is only 500 - 700 m. When building the wall, different materials were used in different places. Basically, it is composed of densely packed loess or reeds, covered with sand and coated with clay. Later the wall was faced with light gray stone. Its average height is from 5 to 10 m, the average width is from 5 to 8 m. A row of battlements with loopholes runs along the top of the wall, and a road has been laid along which columns of troops could move. Approximately every 100 - 150 m, square watchtowers were built along the entire length of the wall, where the guards lived and from where light signals were given when the enemy approached. Tall and massive topped towers have small windows, heavy low entrance arches and interior spaces. Along the entire length of the wall along the top in its thickness, passages were made with ladders, allowing access to one of the sides.

The harsh landscape of the northern Chinese mountains, devoid of vegetation, especially emphasizes the brevity and austere simplicity of this ancient fortress.

The architecture and fine arts of Ancient China reached their highest development in the 3rd century. BC - 3 c. AD (period of the Qin and Han dynasties), when the country was united into a large centralized state. China at that time was a powerful empire, which included previously independent numerous tribes and states. The territory of China during the Qin dynasty (256 - 206 BC) and during the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) covered a vast area up to the borders of Korea and Indo -China. Trade relations were established with a number of other countries, including Central Asia, Syria, Iran, and the Roman Empire.

During this period, feudal relations emerged in China. The ruin and enslavement of the peasantry, the increase in taxes and duties caused numerous popular movements throughout the Han period, flaring up in various regions of China. The largest of these were the Red Browns uprising in 18 AD, the Yellow Bands uprising in 184 AD. and a number of others. The accumulation of large funds in the hands of the ruling class and the centralization of power contributed to an unusually widespread construction during this period. Roads were built linking different parts of the country, many cities and canals were built.

From the Qin period to our time, almost no monuments have survived; on the contrary, it is possible to form a rather holistic idea of \u200b\u200bHan art.

The Han period is a time of brilliant flourishing of the culture of Ancient China. At this time, monumental art - sculpture and painting - received a special development. In Han art, the already widespread trend towards the unity of style is clearly visible, associated with the unification of the state and the establishment of wide cultural communication in China.

This trend can be seen in architecture as well. It is still rather difficult to form a complete understanding of the appearance of the Qin and Han cities. In general terms, the plan of the ancient Chinese city took shape already at the end of the Zhou period. Qin and Han cities reached large sizes and were distinguished by established principles of planning. Spread over a large area, they were surrounded by fortress walls with towers and numerous gates, and inside were divided into several parts.

In the center of the city there was a forbidden part with an imperial palace. The city was the center of crafts, culture and trade. Palace buildings, towers and houses of the nobility stood out from the rest of the buildings for their size and luxurious decoration. During the Qin dynasty in the capital of the state - Xianyang - the number of palaces reached 300. Buildings dating back to this time have not survived to this day, since the main building material was wood. However, descriptions in literary sources give an idea of \u200b\u200bthem. The building principles of Chinese architecture, dating back to very ancient times, are already outlined in Shchijin. On a prepared and rammed site, an earthen foundation (a kind of stylobate) was laid, faced with stone or marble. On this foundation, the main frame of the building was erected, consisting of wooden pillars connected by transverse crossbeams. A wide and high roof rested on the frame, which was the largest and heaviest part of the building. According to the figurative representation of the ancient Chinese, it was supposed to give the impression of unfolded wings of a flying pheasant. The heavy massive roof, so common in the monuments of Chinese architecture, predetermined the features of one of the main structural and decorative elements of Chinese buildings - the so-called dou-gun. Dou-gun is a kind of system of multi-tiered wooden brackets, which, crowning a support post at its junction with a horizontal beam, takes on the weight of this beam and serves to support the large extension of wide roofs, evenly distributing their weight. Dou-gun consists of a series of curved beams, superimposed on each other and protruding far beyond the building. In the architecture of the Han period, dou-gong is used as separate decoratively processed architectural units located at the corners and in the center of the building, in contrast to later periods, when it is an openwork frieze that runs under the roof along the entire wall. The protruding ends of the beams and dou-gongs were already richly decorated in the Han times. The light wooden walls of the building were reinforced on the frame and served as a kind of screens that could be disassembled and replaced depending on the season. Judging by the descriptions in the annals and ancient books, the palaces of the Qin and Han rulers were built from various types of valuable wood and had roofs of colored tiles. Inside the palaces, the walls were decorated with paintings and impregnated with aromatic substances, the floors were inlaid with precious stones. Gardens and parks were laid out around the palaces with flower beds that were preserved throughout the year.

In addition to palaces, high multi-storey watchtowers with several roofs were erected in cities. At present, one can get a fairly clear idea of \u200b\u200bthese towers from the surviving clay models found in burials. One of these models was found by excavations in 1954 in Henan province. Even the scale of the model, reaching over 1.5 m in height, suggests that the Han buildings of this kind were of considerable size.

The quadrangular tower, light and elongated upward, consists of three floors with protruding cornices and pillars at the corners. The pillars were decorated with sculptural representations of nude human figures that resemble caryatids. Human figures as a decorative motif in Chinese architecture are extremely rare. Here these figures are made in a very conditional and generalized way, while the entire processing of the model testifies to mature architectural skill. The tower building is crowned with a roof with convex ornamental stripes imitating colored cylindrical tiles. A high ridge, decorated with a bird figure, runs along the top of the roof.

One can also get an idea of \u200b\u200bordinary residential buildings from the clay models found in the burials, and especially from the preserved images of houses and estates, carved on stone slabs that adorned the tombs. Judging by them, the appearance of the estate in the Han time was quite the same type and remained without significant changes over the next centuries. The estate consisted of several residential and office buildings located in a courtyard surrounded by walls with a gate. The courtyard was divided into several parts, which overlooked the living quarters. The gates, like the buildings, were covered with tiled roofs. The buildings that made up the estate were located symmetrically and were distinguished by their laconicism and simplicity of architecture. Religious tradition prescribed building the building in accordance with the direction of the winds, the level of groundwater and the relief of the area, favorable for humans. Basically, this tradition was based on folk experience and had not only a symbolic meaning, but also a certain practical value. According to superstitious beliefs, the buildings were supposed to face south, built along the river and at the foot of the mountains. In practice, this was due to the protection of buildings from the winds and heating by the sun's rays from the south.

The city buildings were especially varied and beautiful. Multi-storey buildings were erected, decorated on the facade with carved cornices, columns and pilasters that had decorative value. Recent excavations to the east of Beijing have unearthed a large, excellently executed clay model of a house about 2 meters high, giving a clear indication of such urban structures. The model depicts a richly decorated five-story building with multiple roofs, balconies, and numerous doors and windows. In front of the house there is a gate with two low rectangular towers covered with tiled roofs. Above, there are wide roofs and carved balconies, resting on dhow-gunas, which facilitate the structure and create soft transitions in the silhouette of the building. The floors gradually decrease upward, and the building is crowned with a small roof, in size not exceeding the roof of the gate towers. The model is painted in bright colors, which apparently corresponded to the colorful combinations of Han architecture.

The roofs of houses and towers, covered with colored cylindrical tiles, were the main decorative part. Building. Raised by the dou-gun high above the walls, they seemed to float above them. Long, gentle slopes and high curved ridge created an impression of lightness, especially perceptible in the architecture of the towers. In the Han period, roofs with curved ends are still not found, which is characteristic of the subsequent time.

You can get an idea of \u200b\u200bthe decorative wealth of residential buildings by the preserved ceramic decorations that completed each row of tiles on the roof. The relief pattern, depicting either plants or animals, was skillfully placed in a circle.

The few land-based architectural monuments that have come down from this time are stone pylons, which were erected two at a time at the entrance to the burial site and served as a symbolic edge beyond which the "kingdom of the dead" began. Pylons survived in Henan, Shandong and Sichuan provinces. Sichuan pylons differ from more massive Shandong and Henan pylons in slenderness, lightness and elongation of proportions. They are small in size: their height is about 2.5 m, with a distance of 23 m between them. The lower part of the Sichuan pylons consists of a rectangular, slightly tapering upward pillar, decorated with flat pilasters. The upper part, which reproduces the structure of the roofing of residential buildings, is made of architrave, frieze, cornice and a wide roof crowning the entire structure. The stone is carved with the fan-shaped ends of the round roof-supporting beams and cylindrical tiles lying in several rows at the top. The pylons are decorated with carved stone reliefs and inscriptions.

The ensembles of the Han burial structures reach significant sizes and are complexes of underground chambers, faced with bricks or stone slabs. On the surface of the earth, burials are marked by earthen hills, small buildings, statues and pylons.

A large number of various types of tombs have been found in various parts of China. Some of them were carved right in the thickness of the mountains, some were erected in a space specially cut between the rocks for this. The underground chambers with massive stone rectangular entrances and numerous rooms give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe large scale of construction work during the Han period. The ceilings that went upward, designed in the form of a stepped vault, were divided in the middle by low overhanging beams and supported by octagonal pillars, one in the center of each room. Such pillars had grandiose dou-gunas as capitals, which are stone beams curved in an arc, with their ends resting on the ceiling. Various solutions of such dhow-gun make it possible to judge the great skill and variety of construction and decorative techniques.

For example, on one of these dhow-gunas, two also curved stone supports, carved in the form of winged fantastic animals, as if crawling out to the middle of the body from the ceiling and digging into the stone mass of the capital, diverge widely from the central arch in both directions. In some burials at the entrance, there were paired columns, also crowned at the top with dhow-gunas and having monumental figures of lions as a base.

The impression of a crushing mass of stone in the Han tombs was facilitated by the fact that the walls, columns and ceilings were completely covered with carvings and paintings.

The fine art of the Han period differs significantly from the previous periods, although it is based in its development on the previously established traditions.

From the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Confucianism established itself as an official religious and philosophical system, which was reflected in Han art. However, at this time, other philosophical trends continued to develop. On the basis of philosophical Taoism, the Taoist religion, imbued with the spirit of mysticism, arose, the penetration of Buddhist teachings into China began.In contrast to the idealistic trend, materialistic ideas were further developed in philosophy. A progressive philosophical trend that opposed Confucianism and religious Taoism in the 1st century. AD, was the teaching of the materialist Wang Chun, who sought to expose the Confucian ideas of heaven as the supreme deity, refuting the "Tao" in its later mystical-idealistic interpretation. Heaven and earth, human life were viewed by Wang Chun materialistically, as natural phenomena. Progressive trends took place in all other areas of culture that has reached a high level of development. At this time, writing was simplified and unified, and Han poetry and fiction achieved brilliant development. At the court of Emperor Wu Di (140 - 87 BC), the so-called "Music Chamber" (Yuefu) was created, where folk tales and songs were collected and processed. The works of many major Han poets, such as Sima Xiang-zhu and others, are imbued with folk motifs. Their works are written in a simple and colorful language. The largest work of Han fiction was the famous "Historical Notes" by Sima Qian, who created an enormous generalizing work on the history of China.

The nature of art was largely determined by the requirements of the dominant Confucian ideology, which introduced moralizing edifying ideas into it, which served to assert the existing state order. At the same time, features appeared in art that reflected some of the advanced trends of the time. In sculpture and painting, there is more and more interest in reflecting the phenomena of real life: historical events, court life and even scenes from the lives of ordinary people are depicted. Developing the trends that emerged in the art of the 5th - 3rd centuries. BC, Han artists developed an incomparably more realistic method of conveying the image of a person and his environment. But the peculiarity of Han realism lies in the fact that new features in art are still very strongly associated with ancient symbolism and religious ideas. Real images of people and animals are often combined with fantastic and bizarre images of demons, dragons, and various spirits.

An example of Han monumental sculpture is the so-called "guardians of the graves" standing on the sides of the pylons at the entrances to the territory of burial ensembles, most often depicted in the form of lions. The figures were carved from marble or sandstone and reached large sizes. Similar motives of "guardians of graves" date back to the Shang (Yin) period, but in the Han time they received a completely different interpretation. If then schematic geometrized conventional figures were created, representing fantastic creatures, now the sculptor embodies a symbolic image in the guise of a real beast. The figure of a black marble lion stands out especially among the monumental sculptures by features of a kind of realism. A powerful beast with a massive head thrown back, an open mouth and a strong neck covered with a mane is depicted in a lively, tense pose. Generally, but close to nature, a strong muscular body and a formidable grinning lion's face are conveyed.

Most of the Han monumental sculptures are crude and primitive, although some of them are interesting in their plot. Thus, a sculpture in the Shaanxi province in front of the entrance to the tomb of the nomadic conqueror - the commander Ho Qui-bin (died 117 BC) depicts a horse trampling on a defeated enemy. The figures of a horse and a nomad represent a solid block of stone, in which only the main forms are outlined. In this heavy and immobile mass, the sculptor sought to express not a religious idea, but rather the idea of \u200b\u200bthe power of the state, its strength and strength. The sculpture is a kind of allegory of the victorious activity of the commander. It is possible that this statue was part of the sculptural decoration of the "road of spirits".

More mature and brightly new features of art are manifested in the Han sculptural reliefs. The content of these images reflects ancient Chinese legends, historical events, fables and myths. The plots of the reliefs on the pylons, which opened the entrance to the so-called "spirit path", were associated, according to ancient ideas, with the favorable arrangement of the planets, the direction of the winds, etc. On the pylons in Sichuan, the phoenix, dragon, tiger and turtle personified different countries of the world. The mountains of the west were the place where tigers appeared, producing devastation in the valleys - therefore, the tiger has been associated with the west since ancient times. The sluggish turtle, covered with a dark, cold shell, was a reminder of the north, the kingdom of darkness and cold. The mythical red phoenix bird was a symbol of the south and summer. On the reliefs of the pylon in Sichuan, the phoenix is \u200b\u200bdepicted proudly protruding, spreading its strong wings with hard, sharply outlined feathers in a semicircle, lifting its heavy paws high. Its appearance, full of movement, gives the impression of power and strength. In addition to symbolic animals on these pylons, you can see numerous genre and mythological multi-figure scenes. On the cornice, with a high degree of realism, a nomad is depicted in high relief riding on a rapidly galloping deer. Below is a frieze with figures of animals made in a flat relief: monkeys dancing hand in hand, a hare, according to legend, living on the moon, a three-legged raven - an inhabitant of the sun, etc. More conventional in interpretation are mythological creatures - dragons, phoenixes, etc. In depicting people and real animals, the sculptor, distracting from their symbolic meaning, discovers great observation and freedom in conveying their appearance and the nature of their movements. The scenes are often performed so vitally that the symbolic plot in them plays only a secondary role.

Stylistically close to the sculptural decorations of the pylons are numerous carved reliefs on stone slabs that adorned the walls of underground and above-ground burial premises. The content of these reliefs is mythological as well as everyday scenes that were supposed to reproduce around the deceased the same environment that surrounded him on earth. One of the best monuments of this kind are made in the years 147 - 163. AD reliefs on stone slabs of the burial room of the wealthy family of the official U Liang-tsiv Shandong. The images are narrative and give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe life and life of the Han era. Feasts, outings, hunting scenes, various episodes of an edifying and moralizing character in the spirit of Confucian ethics, deities and portraits of Confucius - these are their subjects. The scenes are arranged in a frieze-like manner one above the other, and each is separated from the other by hieroglyphic inscriptions that explain the content. The combination of hieroglyphic inscriptions with pictorial motives has become a traditional feature in Chinese art of subsequent eras. The reliefs are so flat that they resemble an engraving. The entire background space is filled with actors. Scenes from real life are combined with the most fantastic and bizarre motives. In the image of the ceremonial reception in the palace, the silhouettes of the figures are subordinated to a soft harmonious rhythm. The backs of the ambassadors are bent, dishes with meals are solemnly handed over, the heads of the interlocutors smoothly turn to each other. The whole scene is narrated in amazing detail. The palace of several floors is shown in section: on the lower frieze you can see how chariots approach it, above - how they stop in front of the entrance to the house and ceremoniously bowing figures in long robes emerge from them. In the center of the composition is depicted a noble owner, importantly seated in a motionless solemn pose; his figure is much larger in size than the others. Upstairs, above the reception stage, are musicians playing for the guests. On the roof of the palace and outside, figures of people, animals and birds are depicted. The scenes, despite the conventionality and generalization of the relief, are full of life observations. The flat silhouette is outlined with a very sparing and clear line; the characteristics of the movements and facial expressions are conveyed with sufficient clarity: the features of each pose, each gesture are emphasized. In the reliefs of U Lyantsy there are created images that have become canonical: noblemen, in whose appearance immobility, pomp and grandeur are emphasized; messengers, depicted walking hurriedly with equally fluttering clothing; riders, crouching at the necks of galloping horses, etc. P.

Plots of religious and mythological content occupy a large place among the images. One of the reliefs shows the first legendary creators of China - Nuiwa and Fuxi, according to legend, who created its inhabitants and taught them to plow the land, build dams and make various tools, these deified ancestors are depicted with human bodies and long snake tails. Another relief, divided into four friezes, shows deities, personifying celestial planets, thunder and other natural phenomena. The bearded thunder god with a hammer on his shoulder sits on a chariot standing on a cloud conventionally depicted in the form of steep curls; small, rhythmically repeating figures of wind spirits run across the same clouds, pulling his carriage by long ribbons. On the right side of the composition, the spirits hammer lightning and thunder out of the clouds with hammers. The lower frieze depicts the constellation Ursa Major, which is easily recognized by the characteristic arrangement of stars, shown as circles connected by several lines. In the center among the planets sits the deity of the constellation, to which the seven donors go with a bow. The rest of the relief field is filled with various shapes. Here are birds, celestial spirits, dragons, and deities of small stars holding their planets in their hands. The scientific knowledge of the ancient Chinese was closely intertwined with ancient mythology. But deities and spirits are depicted here no longer in the form of abstract symbols, but in the form of people. Thus, the interpretation of a religious theme in the Han period acquired a genre-narrative character. The genre reliefs from another burial in Shandong, depicting scenes of feasts and festivities, are even more vitality, subtlety, elaboration and detail of details.

At present, a fairly large number of Han reliefs from burials have become known. Despite the fact that they are found in various regions of the country, they are united by common stylistic features. In terms of content, the reliefs of different regions are also close to each other. They depict the same exits, feasts and hunts, mythological scenes, etc. In terms of artistic qualities, among the best reliefs, along with the mentioned ones, are carved stone slabs from burials in Sichuan province, discovered by recent excavations. But unlike the reliefs of U Lyantsy, they are less limited by official requirements, and therefore more vital and free.

The plots of the Sichuan reliefs are varied. There are many more directly noticed life scenes in them. One of these reliefs depicts a chariot rushing horses across a bridge. The horses seem to be flying over the bridge. Their run is so fast that their hooves do not touch the ground, and the wheels turn so fast that the spokes cannot be seen. The single rhythm of the movement of two horses, located one against the background of the other, is very well conveyed. Both have the same thoroughbred muzzles, proud steep necks, thin and resilient legs. Depicting noble nobles sitting in a chariot, the sculptor repeats the same rhythmic technique. Two majestic, motionless, leaning back figures, given one against the other, almost repeat each other. This genre scene is rendered with such skill, observation and real knowledge of life, which has not yet been in the entire previous history of Chinese art.

In addition to religious and court subjects, the Han reliefs reflected the life and work of ordinary people. A relief from Chengdu that adorned the walls of one of the Sichuan tombs depicts the mining of rock salt. Against the background of a conditional mountain landscape, silhouettes of thin and emaciated people move in different directions. The whole process of salt extraction, its evaporation and drying is shown in detail. On primitively arranged blocks from a large cauldron, people hardly lift salt in buckets. Their thin arms are tense, their legs buckle from unbearable weight. To the right, under a canopy, stands an official in a high hat, to whom, bowing low, slaves carry salt. The image is executed schematically; the figures are made conditionally, but in the movements, in the backs bent in an arc and the tension of human figures, one can clearly feel the artist's desire to emphasize the exhaustingness and severity of working life. These reliefs are consonant with the verses of the leading Han poets, where in simple, clear words it is told about human feelings and the heavy oppression of a powerless life.

The reliefs from Chengdu are rich in scenes of folk life; here you can see images of threshing, hunting, fishing, market scenes, folk dances.

The walls of the burial premises were decorated, in addition to sculptural reliefs, with painting. It is possible to form an idea of \u200b\u200bit from several surviving samples. Multicolored and bright, they, like the reliefs, depicted genre and mythological scenes. In style, they are close to the reliefs of that time. The plots of the murals were the whole environment that surrounded the deceased during his lifetime. Henan murals show people talking to each other, smart women in dresses with trains and heavy hairstyles studded with pearls. The figures are represented by flat silhouettes, the paint is applied by local spots, and a bright red color prevails. Modeling is outlined with a few thin lines that accurately outline the folds of the clothes when the figures are rotated.

Henan murals, like reliefs, have a lot of movement; the gestures of the figures convey the character of conversations and situations, but the background space is not filled with anything, scattered groups form a long line of various human figures. The paintings from Liaoyang (Liaodong province) have a different character. They are no less dynamic than Henan ones, and have a single composition. The murals depict various scenes related to the life of the nobility, circus performances, scenes of playing musicians, outings and feasts. The color is much richer than in Henan murals. There are blue, lilac, and orange colors, given in very subtle combinations. As an example of Liaoyang murals, one can cite a scene depicting a traditional plot - a ceremonial exit.

The artist focuses all his attention on depicting the life and life of noble people as colorfully, richer and more varied as possible. He takes already established traditional schemes and techniques, but brings into them a large share of courage and creative imagination. In an effort to show the different nature of the movements, he no longer arranges the figures in a frieze-like manner, but scatters them all over the painting field. Horses carrying elegant chariots and riders stand out in bright spots against the green background of the grass. The carriages and retinue take center stage. The thin black spokes of the wheels flash, impatiently throw up their heads and move their feet to the horses prancing in a row behind the cart, restrained by the riders, while the rest, set free, gallop. Their movements are shown to be deliberately exaggerated in order to create the impression of an unusually stormy movement; for this, the artist gives them in different turns and rakkurs, then raising the horses on their hind legs, then showing them with sharply curved necks at full gallop, as if preparing to throw off the rider. This whole scene was written with great observation. The artist is interested in each individual figure. Hairstyles and costumes, bright-red ribbons on carriages, harness of horses, turns of human bodies are meticulously rendered. Great freedom and with it the completeness of every gesture, every detail characterize the painting of the Han period. Man and his life have become its main and leading content. During this period, there is still no desire to reveal the inner world of human experiences: the faces of the depicted people are impassive and schematic. But in the observation of characteristic movements, in the transfer of external appearance, in the depiction of people in various occupations, painting made a huge step forward compared to the previous period and reached great perfection.

Vivid, living examples of Han folk art are objects of small terracotta sculpture, designed, like funerary reliefs, to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. Such objects have been found not only in rich burials, but also in the graves of people of various strata of society. The craftsmen who performed these terracotta figurines were not bound by canonical rules. They sought to convey the characteristic features of faces, clothing, ethnographic features of various peoples inhabiting the country. Slave girls in dresses with long hanging sleeves, playing the flute or carrying water in buckets, workers with picks and shovels, various animals - an overweight bull harnessed to a rough peasant cart and lazily moving its legs, a dog - the guardian of the grave, ready to rush to the enemy - all these clay figurines are somewhat rough, but differ in the liveliness of the transfer of characteristic features.

Along with a few primitive figurines in the burials, there are also highly artistic realistic works. This is the ceramic sculpture depicting a girl. The girl is standing in long clothes, hiding her hands in wide sleeves, which is why the latter are crumpled in light folds. The girl's pose is frontal, the body is made quite general. The main thing that attracts attention is the face, rounded, with wide cheekbones and narrow long eyes. It is executed with amazing truthfulness and is distinguished by great simplicity and expressiveness. A thin high neck and dropped shoulders emphasize the youth and femininity of the whole look, the softness of the transitions from one plastic form to another. This "sculptural portrait of a common man is far from the official art of the Han period. The same features of great vitality characterize the figure of a horse, discovered in the Sichuan province by excavations in 1954.

This sculpture is very large in size (over 1 m in height), which in the Han period is extremely rare among ceramic sculptures and is typical already for a later period. The horse is depicted with a sharply curved neck, protruding ears and a short tail, thrown up. He scratches the ground with his hoof, and his whole appearance expresses ardent impatience. The figure of the horse is made with great skill, one can feel in it the sculptor's deep knowledge of nature, the ability to generalize this knowledge and show the most basic, in this case the characteristic appearance of a young hot horse. In the Han times, many of the terracotta funerary sculptures that were put into the burial together with models of houses and estates (which were mentioned above) sometimes make up rather complex genre scenes that convey the life of the ancient Chinese.

The applied art of the Han period differs significantly from the works of the previous period in terms of forms and techniques. The Han bronze vessels are very thin-walled and almost devoid of ornamentation. Most of them have a purely utilitarian purpose, in connection with which many forms are changed and simplified. The relief pattern, as a rule, remains only near the handles, the rest of the surface is decorated with only a few decorative convex stripes running across the vessel. The casting technique becomes somewhat more varied. Often, parts of vessels are soldered separately, many are made using forging rather than casting. Inlaid and gilding are still used.

This time was characterized by the manufacture of large earthen vessels covered with green and golden brown glaze, similar in shape and ornament to bronze ones.

During the Han period, painted ceramic vessels, distinguished by their brightness of color, also became widespread. As in the Zhanguo period, the pattern was applied to the vessel with mineral paints after firing. The main motive of the Han pattern is a geometric ornament, running in belts, delimited from each other by a sharp black stripe. Bright colors - red, white, lilac and green - form very beautiful, colorful combinations. This ornament is almost devoid of symbolism and has only a decorative character.

In everyday life, as well as for ritual purposes during the Han period, bronze mirrors were used, the first examples of which date back to the Zhanguo period. These mirrors were placed in the graves in order to protect the deceased from evil spirits. Han mirrors are round or square and are more massive than thin Zhanguo mirrors. On the reverse side of the mirrors, relief images and inscriptions of lyrical, symbolic and edifying content that had not been encountered before the Han time (for example, "a sage uses his mind like a mirror," etc.) were executed. Han mirrors, like Zhanguo's mirrors, were gilded and inlaid. The motives for the patterns on the Han mirrors are usually images of animals and symbolic signs, which may have depicted ancient measuring instruments and were associated with the Confucian morality, which says that the sky is round and the earth is square (“Without a compass and a square one cannot make a correct circle, which and you need to live by the rules "). As an example of Han mirrors, one can cite a mirror from the collection of the Beijing Museum, on the reverse side of which a geometric ornament and an inscription are placed in concentric circles. Closer to the center, the figures of a predator and a deer and two symmetrically located scenes, probably representing the worship of a deity, are filled with a convex relief. A gracefully and easily running deer with branched antlers and a predator rushing after it by leaps are conveyed with greater expression. In the interpretation of their bizarrely curved bodies, one can see the closeness to the Scythian "animal style", which is typical for a number of works of Chinese applied art of that time.

Han jade products are very diverse. Buckles, rings, figurines of people and animals, etc. made from it are distinguished by the softness of modeling the smoothly polished stone surface and the finest patterns. One of the jade buckles depicts in high relief the figures of fantastic beasts crawling from the two ends of the buckle rounded down. Both flexible animals wriggle, forming a spiral pattern with the bends of their bodies. The figures clung to the surface of the stone, and only the alert muzzles raised themselves, as if in order to better examine each other.

Great skill is manifested in the fabrics and artistic silk embroidery of the Han period, exported far beyond China to the countries of Western Asia and Europe. The motifs usual for that time were executed on the fabrics: riders on horses, fish, hieroglyphic inscriptions. The famous Han fabric, discovered by the expedition of P. Kozlov in 1924 during excavation of burials in Noin-Ula (northern Mongolia), depicts trees and rocks on which crested birds sit. The drawing is made with gold thread on a dark red background. The conventionally rendered figurines of thin-legged birds with sharp feathers and bizarre winding rocks with trees growing on them form a dynamic composition that is highly decorative.

The art of Ancient China, especially of the Han period, played an important role in the formation and further development of Chinese culture. It was also of great importance for other countries of the East - Japan, Korea, Indo-China, Mongolia, which used the cultural achievements of Ancient China for many centuries.