Around 1860, thanks to the works of Neuman, Weber, Helmholtz and Felici (see § 11), electrodynamics was already considered to be completely systematic, with clearly defined boundaries. The main research now seemed to have to follow the path of finding and withdrawing all the consequences of the established principles and their practical application to which inventive techniques have already begun.
The condition is a spherical equation in space. Speed \u200b\u200bin the area is constant. We are looking for the likelihood of a narrow velocity interval, we must take into account that the volume of the thin shell between the two spheres is - therefore, an additional in the distribution of Maxwell. Well, maybe almost final, because he added a cosmological element to them - with a purely mathematical point of view, the word may be there, although it does not have to be physically, and there was no reason for this. Such a reason exists today: observations show that the expansion of the universe is accelerated, and the cosmological component describes this fact.
However, the prospect of such a quiet work violated the young Scottish physicist James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879), indicating a much wider range of electrodynamics. With a full base, Duem wrote:
"No logical necessity was pushing Maxwell to invent new electrodynamics; He was guided only by some analogies and desire to complete the work of Faraday in the same spirit, as the works of Coulomb and Poisson were completed with an amper electrodynamics, as well as, possibly, the intuitive sensation of the electromagnetic nature of the world " (P. Duhem, Les Theories Electriques de J. Cerrk Maxwell, Paris, 1902, p. eight).
Einstein's path to the theory of gravity that he called common theory Relativity, was very confusing, full mistakes and false revelations. However, the final result - the field equations is almost the only possible. Knowing them, we can analyze spatial and temporal relations in this physical situation, calculate traces of particles, etc. We have 10 equations for these 10 functions, and only six equations are independent, because the coordinate system can be arbitrarily selected, and mathematics cannot do this for us. arbitrator.
Perhaps the main motivation that Maxwell began to work, at all, not demanded by the science of those years, was admirable for the new ideas of Faraday, so original that scientists were not able to perceive them and assimilate them. The generation of physicists-theorists, brought up on the concepts and mathematical grace of the works of Laplace, Poisson and Ampere, the thoughts of Faraday seemed too vague, and experimenter physicists are too wise and abstract. There was a strange thing: Faraday, who was not a mathematician in his education (he began his career a peddler in the book shop, and then entered the Davy's laboratory to the position of semi-system-heater), felt the urgent need to develop a certain theoretical method, just as effective as and mathematical equations. Maxwell guess it.
These equations may be different. Mathematics itself imposes its shape. Einstein did not know this before the discovery, only after she realized that he had no big choice. His way was so embarrassed because he did not know the depth of mathematics, which he used. He was not: David Gilbert or Felix Klein, great mathematicians from Göttingen, at that time did not do it. Differential geometry or department of mathematics engaged in twisted spaces began to develop faster after Einstein's theory before it was an esoteric field for several devoted, such as Tullio Levi Chivit, with which Einstein loved to correspond during World War II.
"Starting the Labor of Faraday," Maxwell wrote in the preface to his famous "treatise", "I found that his method of understanding the phenomena was also mathematical, although not presented in the form of ordinary mathematical symbols. I also found that this method1 can be expressed in conventional mathematical form and, thus, compare with the methods of professional mathematicians. So, for example, Faraday saw power linesthat permeate all the space where mathematics saw the centers of forces attracting at a distance; Faraday saw Wednesday where they did not see anything other than the distance; Faradays suggested a source and cause of phenomena in real actions occurring in the environment, they were satisfied with the fact that they were in force at a distance attributed to electrical fluids.
Italy wrote him in his native language, because it reminded him of his youth when he was often in Italy with his parents. Yes, it was assumed that the old Newtonian theory of gravity was supposed to be changed. It was an excellent achievement, and so far it is: various specialists: from energy, generators, electric motors, radio, microwaves, radars, optics, fiber optic, electronics, etc. They study on the way from the four equations of Maxwell. A huge area of \u200b\u200bphenomena can be understood uniformly.
This is not only elegant mathematically, but also extremely effectively in practice. That is why it says that there is nothing more practical than a good theory. Now, after Maxwell, there was a suspicion that gravity should also be changed, for example, that gravity should not leave immediately, but with the final speed - if the moon disappeared at that moment, the water of the oceans should have felt a delay in the background. In general, however, the old Newton's old theory was excellent, and astronomers were able to accurately calculate the heavenly movements, astronomy became synonymous with accurate science, boring in attachment to minor effects that no one observes.
When I translated that I considered the ideas of Faraday, in a mathematical form, I found that in most cases the results of both methods coincided, so they explained the same phenomena and the same laws of action were explained, but that the Faraday methods were like For those under which we begin with a whole and come to a particular analysis, while conventional mathematical methods are based on the principle of movement from particulars and constructing a whole synthesis.
Gravity is the weakest of famous shocks and therefore it is difficult to study in a laboratory or close to space. Einstein built a gravitational analogue of Maxwell theory. He became part of the collective whims of the imagination of the first academic celebrity, perhaps only Stephen Hawking enjoys a similar, but perhaps less than glory. Physicists in those years were mainly engaged in atomic and quantum phenomena. He also dealt with Einstein, although his point of view was fundamentally different from what was developed by Bor, Born, Heisenberg, Dirac and other creators of quantum mechanics.
I also found that many of the fruitful research methods opened by mathematicians could be significantly expressed with the help of ideas arising from the works of Faraday than in their original form. " J. Cerrk Maxwell, A Treatise On Electricity and Magnetism, London, 1873; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1881. (Journal of the preface and part IV, see the book J. K. Maxwell, Selected Works on Theory electromagnetic field, 1954, p. 345-361. - approx. transit).
They were primarily interested in atomic phenomena: spectra, behavior of spectral lines in an electrical or magnetic field, magnetic moment of atoms, etc. Einstein thought rather at a rue: he wanted to unite his theory of gravity with Maxwell electrodynamics. Combine with a nontrivial way, because you can simply put both theories "mechanically" in one. There were no experiments pointing to the fact that the electromagnetic and gravitational fields have something in common. There are still no such experimental data.
Einstein believed that with the lack of experiments it was worse for the facts: it will still look for the synthesis of both theories. There was only a mathematical path. Einstein was not interested in physics, that is, solved further specific problems. Of course, he loved to show us how to do it from time to time, but concrete problems were examples of something more common. Always from the trees hung the forest, and in fact he was only interested in the forest. The psychological disorder caused him the lack of a logical sequence, so the situation when we have several different theories in physics that have little in common seemed to him completely unbearable.
As for the mathematical method of Faraday, Maxwell still notices that mathematicians who considered the Faraday method deprived of scientific accuracy, did not come up with anything better as the use of a hypotheses on the interaction of things that do not have physical reality, such as current elements, " which arise from nothing, pass the area of \u200b\u200bthe wire and then turn into nothing again. "
Nature is homogeneous, and we must build it a single theory. He loved to call Spinozu with his ruthless causality, he was somehow seventeenth - one way or another in the times of Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnia believed so much to the rational order of the world. The concept that physical phenomena is only at the moment when we measure it, because Einstein was a thrill of rational faith, almost sacrence. The universe is managed by its laws, the moon also exists when no one looks at her, and the mouse does not change his gaze on the state of the universe.
To give the ideas of Faraday mathematical form, Maxwell began with the fact that he created electrodynamics of dielectrics. Maxwell Theory is directly related to Mossotti theory. While Faradays, in their theory of dielectric polarization, intentionally left the question about the nature of electricity, Mossotti, a supporter of Franklin's ideas, imagines electricity as a single fluid, which he calls ether and which, in his opinion, is present with a certain degree of density in all molecules . When the molecule is under the action of the power of induction, the ether is concentrated at one end of the molecule and is solved on the other; Because of this, positive strength appears at the first end and the negative equal to it - on the second. Maxwell is entirely accepting this concept. In his "treatise" he writes:
The element of subjectivity introduced by quantum mechanics was unacceptable for him. Therefore, the quantum mechanics was considered as a particularly successful phenomenological theory, that is, describing the experience, but without aspiration to penetrate deeper. He believed that statistical correctness was not science, and at best, introducing into training. As soon as we learn correctness, you must try to understand where they came from.
He thought that there should be a more fundamental theory, which would explain the particle that built the world, and even what is a particle. According to him, there must be two elements of the theory: particles and fields with these particles formed. Everything should be described as a field, a particle is simply a localized area of \u200b\u200ba particularly strong field. He also hoped that the movement of these particles would also be associated with the field equations. In nonlinear theories, two moving fields "bulge" somehow will interact with each other.
"The electric polarization of the dielectric is the deformation state in which the body comes under the action electrical power and which disappears simultaneously with the cessation of this force. We can imagine it as something that can be called an electrically displacement produced by the electromotive force. When the electromotive force acts in a conductive medium, it causes current there, but if the environment is non-conductive or dielectric, the current cannot pass through this environment. Electricity, however, is shifted in it in the direction of the electromotive force, and the magnitude of this displacement depends on the magnitude of the electromotive force. If the electromotive force increases or decreases, in the same proportion, the electrical displacement increases accordingly or decreases.
Thus, he expected an understanding of quantum phenomena. From his point of view, it was necessary only to find a good starting point. He reached out to other funds, worked with him and other assistants, the goal was still unchanged. Every few years, Einstein was convinced that latest version The equations were exactly what he was looking for. Then he began to perceive the difficulties finally accusing approach. Strauss recorded the distinguishing expressions of Einstein. "For our work you need to do two things: tireless perseverance and willingness to throw out what is spent so much time and strength."
The displacement value is measured by the amount of electricity crossing the surface unit with an increase in the displacement from zero to the maximum value. Such is, consequently, the measure of electric polarization. "
If the polarized dielectric consists of a set of scattered particles scattered in an insulating medium, on which electricity is distributed in a certain way, then any change in polarization state must be accompanied by a change in the distribution of electricity in each particle, i.e., the current electric current is true, limited only by the volume of the conductive particle. In other words, each change in the state of polarization is accompanied by a shift current. In the same "treatise" Maxwell says:
Sam saw this situation twice, every time Einstein came the next day and as if she never started again using a completely different approach. Einstein worked on the unified field theory until his death this year. When he began, he was considered the greatest physicist in the world, everyone was waiting for his next work, ending as a complete outsider, dinosaur from another era. It would be tragic if Einstein himself belonged to his work in such a way as to speak romantic and ambitiously. However, he did not believe in the only thing associated with ambitions.
"Changes electric displacementobviously cause electric Toki.. But these currents can exist only during the change of displacement, and since the displacement cannot exceed some value, without causing a devastating discharge, then these currents cannot continue infinitely in the same direction, like currents in the conductors ".
For him, there were not so many differences. When he got Max Planck Medal, he hid it and did not even open the box to watch it. For many years he could do homeworkwithout looking at his colleagues. He began his scientific career as an official of the Patent Office and for many years was non-monetary. He even believed that this situation is clearer, because otherwise a person lives under pressure to get results, and the results come or failed.
Do not insert fees in the finest place just because it is the easiest. Older scientists often fall into scientific fads. The work of Einstein on a single field theory does not quite correspond to this scheme, but rather a consequence of his views, and not aberration. The scientist did not leave his feelings, he could learn, he did not cease to be creative and did not forget how to learn.
After Maxwell introduces the concept of the field strength, which is a mathematical interpretation of the Faraday concept of the field of force, it records the mathematical ratio for the concepts of electrical offset and the offset current. He comes to the conclusion that the so-called conductor charge is surface charge The surround dielectric is that the energy accumulates in a dielectric in the form of a voltage state that the movement of electricity is subject to the same conditions as the movement of incompressible fluid. Maxwell himself will compare his theory so much:
From today, the uniform field theory is probably a mistake. Physics developed quite differently: at first she returned to the era special theory Relativity. Einstein deliberately ignored this, although during his life, during a strauss assistant, quantum electrodynamics was born. Even after the death of Einstein, his generalization was constructed - the theory of electromagnetic interactions. It contains many experimental parameters and is based on quantum field theory. And there is also a big dead end, because forty years could not find the theory more satisfactory theoretically and in accordance with the experiment.
"Electrification energy is concentrated in a dielectric environment, whether solid, liquid or gas, dense medium, or rarefied, or completely deprived of weighty matter, if only it was able to transmit an electrical action.
The energy is enclosed at each point of the medium in the form of a deformation state called by electric polarization, the value of which depends on the electromotive force acting at this point ...
Probably no one is trying to continue the program of a single field theory in the sense of Einstein: that is, to build a common, incumbent theory of interactions. Einstein's failure must be seen in the background. The study of contrary to appearance is rather a history of failures than success, that is, failures are everyday bread, the success is a holiday. Today's fundamental physics, sixty years after the death of Einstein, looks rather lost. A huge sustrone program in which several decades of world-class talented theorists under the leadership of Edward Witten seem to succeed, but in any case, the measurable advantages have yet been mathematical than physical.
In dielectric fluids, electric polarization is accompanied by tension in the direction of induction lines and equal pressure in all directions perpendicular to the induction lines; The magnitude of this tension or pressure per unit surface is numerically equal to energy per unit volume at this point. "
It is difficult to more clearly express the basic idea of \u200b\u200bthis approach, which is the idea of \u200b\u200bFaraday: the place in which they are committed electrical phenomenais the environment. As if wishing to emphasize that this is the main thing in his treatise, Maxwell finishes him with the following words:
Scientists who work in this area have repeated the same mistake as Einstein: they were seduced by mathematics and landed in the so-called superstrument landscape in which you can prove everything, and nothing can be foreseen. Of course, Einstein hoped that someday would turn out that the topic of the unified theory was correct on his side. Over the years, this hope has passed into the future. Very few scientists decided so deeply with what they do and what they think. Science did not work for him, and the way to make a calling.
The same accurate causality that was in his physics also formed his image of a person in the world. Einstein often said that if he knew that he would die in an hour, he would not take him, because he believed in the order of the world in which a person is only a small part of the whole, but a personality is something like an optical illusion. You can believe him, because then he really lived with death sentence. Over the past seven years of life, he survived with a big aneurysm of the abdominal aorta aneurysm - then it was impossible to make an operation, the scientist knew that one day aneurysm would break.
"If we accept this environment as a hypothesis, I believe that it should occupy an outstanding place in our research and that we should try to construct a rational idea of \u200b\u200ball the details of its action, which was my constant goal in this treatise".
Justifying dielectric theory, Maxwell transfers her concepts with the necessary amendments to magnetism and creates theory electromagnetic induction. It will summarize all its theoretical constructions in several equations that are now famous: in six Maxwell equations.
These equations differ greatly from conventional equations of mechanics - they define the structure of the electromagnetic field. While the laws of mechanics are applicable to areas of space in which matter is present, the Maxwell equations are applicable for the entire space, regardless of whether there is no body or electrical charges there. They determine the changes in the field, while the laws of mechanics determine changes in material particles. In addition, the Newtonian mechanics refused how we were already talked to ch. 6, on the continuity of action in space and time, while the Maxwell equations establish the continuity of phenomena. They link events adjacent in space and in time: according to the specified state of the field "here" and "now" we can withdraw the state of the field in close proximity to close points of time. Such an understanding of the field is absolutely consistent with the idea of \u200b\u200bFaraday,. But it is in an insurmountable contradiction with a two-century tradition. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that it met resistance.
Objections that have been put forward against the theory of electricity Maxwell were numerous and treated both fundamental concepts based on the theory, and may be even more, to that too free manner, which Maxwell uses when deriving consequences of it. Maxwell step by step is building his theory with the help of the "dexterity of fingers", as Poincare was successfully expressed, having in mind those logical stretches that sometimes allow themselves scientists in the formulation of new theories. When Maxwell comes up for an obvious contradiction during the analytical construction, he, without hesitation, overcomes ERA with the help of discouraging liberties. For example, it is worth it to exclude any member, replace an inappropriate sign of expression reverse, replace the value of some letter. For those who admired the infallible logical construction of an amper electrodynamics, Maxwell's theory was supposed to produce an unpleasant impression. Physics failed to bring it into a slim order, i.e., to free from logical errors and inconsistencies. But. On the other hand, they could not refuse the theory, which, as we will see in the future, organically tied optics with electricity. Therefore, at the end of the last century, the biggest physicists adhered to the thesis, nominated in 1890 by Herz: since the reasoning and calculations, with the help of which Maxwell came to his theory of electromagnetism, are full of errors that we cannot correct, we will take six, Maxwell equations as the initial hypothesis, As postulates, which will rely on the whole theory of electromagnetism. "The main thing in the theory of Maxwell is the Maxwell equations," says Hertz.
21. Electromagnetic theory of light
In the found Weber formula for the interaction force of two electrical chargesmoving relative to each other includes a coefficient having a meaning of some speed. The magnitude of this speed itself Weber and Kollarush was determined experimentally in the work of 1856, which became classical; This value was somewhat more than the speed of light. Next year, Kirchhof "from Weber's theory brought the law of propagation of electrodynamic induction on the wire: if the resistance is zero, the speed of the electrical wave does not depend on the cross section of the wire, from its nature and density of electricity and is almost equal to the speed of light propagation in emptiness. Weber in one of his theoretical and experimental work of 1864 confirmed the results of Kirchhoff, showing that the Kirchhoff constant is quantitatively equal to the number of electrostatic units contained in the electromagnetic unit, and noticed that the coincidence of the speed of the propagation of electrical waves and the speed of light can be considered as an indication on The presence of a close connection between two phenomena. However, before talking about this, you should first find out exactly what the true meaning of the concept of the spread of electricity is: "And this meaning is the meaning of the Weber, it seems not to cause high hopes at all."
Maxwell just had no doubt, perhaps because he found support in the ideas of Faraday regarding the nature of light (see § 17).
"In various places of this treatise, Maxwell writes, starting in the XX chapter of the fourth part to the exposition of the electromagnetic theory of light," an attempt was made to explain electromagnetic phenomena with the help of a mechanical action transmitted from one body to another with the medium that occupies the space between these bodies. Wave the theory of light also allows for the existence of some environment. We must now show that the properties of the electromagnetic medium are identical to the properties of the luminous medium ...
We can obtain the numerical value of some properties of the medium, such as the rate at which the perturbation extends through it, which can be calculated from electromagnetic experiments, and is also observed directly in the event of light. If it was found that the speed of propagation of electromagnetic perturbations is as well as the speed of light, not only in the air, but also in other transparent environments, we would get a serious basis in order to consider the light by electromagnetic phenomenon, and then the combination of optical and electrical Evidence will give the same proof of the reality of the environment as we receive in the case of other forms of matter on the basis of a set of testimonies of our senses "( In the same place p. 550-551 Russian publication).
As in the first work of 1864, Maxwell proceeds from its equations and after a series of transformations it comes to the conclusion that in the void transverse shifting currents spread at the same speed as the light as "represents the confirmation of the electromagnetic theory of light", - Confidently say Maxwell.
Then Maxwell studies in more detail the properties of electromagnetic perturbations and comes to the conclusions, today is already well known: the oscillating electric charge creates a variable electric field, inextricably linked with a variable magnetic field; This is a generalization of Ersteda's experience. Maxwell equations allow you to trace the change in time in any point of space. The result of such a study shows that electrical and magnetic oscillations arise at each point of space, i.e. the intensity of electrical and magnetic fields changes periodically; These fields are inseparable from each other and polarized mutually perpendicularly. These oscillations are distributed in space at a certain speed and form a transverse electromagnetic wave: electrical and magnetic oscillations at each point occur perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Among the many private consequences arising from Maxwell's theory, we mention the following: especially often criticized the assertion that the dielectric constant is equal to the square of the refractive index of optical rays in this medium; the presence of light pressure in the direction of light propagation; The orthogonality of the two polarized waves - elecrtric and magnetic.
22. Electromagnetic waves
In § 11, we have already said that the oscillatory nature of the discharge of Leiden bank was established. This phenomenon from 1858 to 1862 was again subjected to attentive analysis by Wilhelm Feddersen (1832-1918). He noticed that if two capacitor plates are connected by a low resistance, the discharge is the oscillatory nature and the duration of the oscillation period is proportional to the square root from the capacitor tank. In 1855, Thomson brought out the potential theory that the period of oscillations of the oscillating discharge is proportional to the square root from the product of the capacitor of the capacitor to its self-induction coefficient. Finally, in 1864, Kirchhogof gave the theory of an oscillatory discharge, and in 1869, Helmgoltz showed that similar oscillations can be obtained in an induction coil, the ends of which are connected to the condenser's plates.
In 1884, Henry Herz (1857-1894), a former student and an assistant Helmholtz, began to study the Maxwell theory (see ch. 12). In 1887, he repeated Helmholtz's experiments with two induction coils. After several attempts, he managed to put his classic experiences, well-known now. With the help of the "generator" and "resonator", Hertz was experimentally proved (in a manner that today describe in all textbooks), which the oscillatory discharge causes a wave space consisting of two oscillations - electrical and magnetic, polarized perpendicular to each other. Hertz also had a reflection, refraction and interference of these waves, showing that all his experiments are fully explained by the theory of Maxwell.
Many experimenters rushed along the path, but they did not succeed much to add to the understanding of the similarities of light and electrical waves, for, using the same wavelength that hertz took (about 66 cm), they came out on the phenomena of diffraction, which donate all the others Effects. To avoid this, we needed the installations of such large sizes, which were unrealizable in almost those times. Augusto Riga (1850-1920), which, with the help of a new type of generator created by the new type of generator, managed to excite a wave a length of several centimeters (most often it worked with 10.6 cm long waves). Thus, Riga managed to reproduce all optical phenomena with the help of devices that are mainly analogues of the corresponding optical instruments. In particular, Riga was the first to obtain the double refraction of electromagnetic waves. The works of Riga begun in 1893 and from time to time they described them in notes and articles published in scientific journals were then combined and supplemented in now the classical book "Ottica delle Oscillazioni Elettriche" ("Optics of Electric oscillations"), published in 1897, the name of which expresses the content of the whole era in the history of physics.
The ability of a metal powder placed in the tube becomes carried out under the action of the discharge located near the electrostatic machine, it was studied to demolish (1853-1922) in 1884 and ten years later, this ability was used by Dodge and for the information and many others to indicate electromagnetic waves. Combining the Riga generator and the indicator to demolish with the brilliant ideas of "antenna" and "grounding", at the end of 1895 Gulielmo Marconi (1874-1937) successfully produced the first practical experiments ( As is known, the priority in the invention of radio belongs to the Russian scientist A. S. Popov, who read on May 7, 1895 at a meeting of the physical branch of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, a report containing the description) In the field of radiotelegraph, the rapid development and the amazing results of which truly borders with a miracle.
Now almost every person knows that electric and magnetic field directly interconnected with each other. Even there is a special studying electromagnetic phenomena. But in the 19th century, the Maxwell's electromagnetic theory was not formulated, everything was completely different. It was believed, for example, that the electrical fields are inherent in only particles and bodies with magnetic properties - a completely different area of \u200b\u200bscience.
In 1864, the famous British physicist D. K. Maxwell indicates the direct relationship of electrical and magnetic phenomena. The discovery was called the "Theory of the Electromagnetic Field of Maxwell". Due to her, it was possible to solve a number of insoluble, from the point of view of electrodynamics of the time, questions.
Most high-profile discoveries are always based on the results of previous researchers. Maxwell's theory is no exception. A distinctive feature is that Maxwell significantly expanded the results obtained by its predecessors. For example, he indicated that in the experience of Faraday, not only a closed contour from conductive material can be used, but consisting of any material. In this case, the contour is an indicator of a vortex electric field, which affects not only on metals. With such a point of view, when in the field of dielectric material, it is more correct to talk about the currents of polarization. They also make a job that consists in heating the material to a certain temperature.
The first suspicion of the connection is electrical and appeared in 1819. H. Earsted noted that if near the conductor with a current to position the compass, the direction of the arrow deviates from
In 1824, A. Ampere formulated the law of interaction of conductors, subsequently called the "Ampire Law".
And finally, in 1831, Faradays recorded the appearance of the current in the circuit in a changing magnetic field.
Maxwell's theory is designed to solve the main task of electrodynamics: with the well-known spatial distribution of electrical charges (currents), some characteristics of the generated magnetic and electric fields can be determined. This theory does not consider the mechanisms themselves underlying the occurrence of phenomena.
Maxwell's theory is designed for nearby charges, since the system of equations believes that electromagnetic interactions occur from regardless of the medium. An important feature of the theory is the fact that its fields are considered on its basis, which:
Are generated by relatively large currents and charges distributed in a large volume (many times higher than the size of the atom or molecule);
Magnetic and electrical field variables change faster than the period of processes inside the molecules;
The distance between the calculated point of space and the source of the field exceeds the size of the atoms (molecules).
All this suggests that Maxwell's theory applies primarily to the macromir's phenomena. Modern physics more and more processes explains from the point of view of quantum theory. In Maxwell formulas, quantum manifestations are not taken into account. Nevertheless, the use of Maxwellian systems of equations allows you to successfully solve a certain range of tasks. Interestingly, since the density of electrical currents and charges are taken into account, then theoretically, the existence of them, but magnetic nature. In 1831, he pointed out Dirak, denoting them with magnetic monopulas. In general, the main postulates of theory are as follows:
Created variables electric field;
A variable magnetic field generates an electric field of vortex nature.
