5.
Docharic.
The doctor history in the chronological window of Rose, divided by six 6 time periods, from the i-th to the VI-th.
Starting from the most mysterious, the I-th despair period, covering a significant interval of seven and a half millennia (-18.0T-9.5t to the NE), with Okendo objects and the Red Zone (Red Zone) on the central coast Peru.
Continuing in the early II second second (-9.5T-8.0T GG to the NE) and III third (-8,000-6,000 GG to NE) periods such as: Chivateros, Lauricoch, and later Arenal, Tochpal, Puzzle and Playa Chira .
In the fourth period (-6.0T-4.2T GG to the NE), AMBO (AMBO), Canario (Canario), SICHES (SICHES), LUZ (LUZ), and Tokepel and Lauricoch, come to replace the Chivateros (AMBO) phase of its development.
Lauricoch, in its third stage continues throughout the V fifth (-4,200-2,500 yd to the NE) period, very interesting in its essence, applying for the right to be called "Early Corporate".
In any case, such cultures like Honda and Temkacchay arise. Sites such as: Aspero in SUP, with its oldest embankments of Uak de Los Idols and Waka de Los Sacryfisios, El Para and Waka La Florida in the Rimak River Valley, were built at this time.
It is between the valleys of the Chikama and Rimak rimak, the largest concentration of buildings of the "early corporate" period (Mosli, 1978) is celebrated.
A long-term doctorate period in the chronologicalization of Rose ends with an important VI sixth period, cotton-doctamic (Mosnos, 1975), marked by a variety of sites with constructs of monumental architecture. These are masterpieces such as: Kalo Norte Chico (Norte Chico (Caral), Buena Vista (Casavilca), Culebras (Culebras), Viscachaani, Waka Neaca (Huaca Prieta) and, of course, Ventarron (VENTARRON).
6.
Establishing ceramic benchmarks.
We once again listen to Jacobs:
"In his work of 1962, Rose binds chronology to a well-known sequence for ceramics in the ICA valley (ICA) simply because it is an excellent opportunity for a good start for the founding of detailed chronology for different ceramics styles in this region.
Ceramics, the existence of which is a prerequisite for the end of the later addic period and the transition to the initial period, appears in the ICA valley at the turn of about -1,800 to the NE.
The chronological system of Rose later was complemented by Menzel (Menzel) and Lanning (Lanning, 1967), which used radio-carbon dates available at that time. "
Rose-Lanning designated two significant periods in the history of civilizations South America, sharing the culture of the ancient Peru to those that developed without traces of the presence of ceramics, and culture, which leaving researchers proof by the use of Oyoy.
7.
Cotton-doctorm.
In ordering the chronological periods, taking into account the sets of textile production, the resulting chamber of the periods of periods, will also receive a cotton period in the doctoral history of Peruvian archaosites (hereinafter also the "site").
Jacobs in its compilation emphasizes: "Cotton-addiction, later Dedicated Mosley (Moseley, 1975) and received widespread confession (Quilter, 1991: 393), in the classification of Rawa
ShameSkoy and Shameskinsky refer to the period -2,500-1,800 to the NE, to this truly early (later doctor) period (Moslos, 1992: 99). "
In the chronology of Lumbreras, the early formative (formation period) layer from -1,800 to the NE. 200 NE, turns on in the ceramic period.
In the formation period, the early Ceramic history of the ancient Peru, Early Chiripa (Early Chiripa), Kotosh Culture, Cooking (Cupisnique), Thoril (Toril) - is considered that the Aqueduct Kumbe Mayo was built not earlier than -1,000 GG to NE., Las Haldas, Sechin Alto (Sechin Alto), Alto Chavin (Mosna River Valley) and Vicc (Pewra River Valley).
The formation period is also replaced by seven-year duration by a period of "regional crops" (including layers of "early intermediate" Early Intermediate and "middle horizon" Middle Horizon), in which developing already in the new era: urine (wicker), Naska, Lima, Property, Pewra, Tiwanaka, and adding later Wary, Las Animas, Requay, Galocko.
8.
A variety of local chronologies.
"Most chronologies submitted by experts for the northern coast of Peru belong to individual dedicated valleys or to pan-Andean chronology. Dating for the valleys of urine, Chikama and the Viru River, can only be approximately correlated with the sequence for the Northern Coast Peru (Watson, 1986: 83 ). According to Watson, the first traces of the use of ceramics products on the northern central coast are fixed in the period of about -2,500-2,500 to NE., And to -2,000 to NE. Ceramics are already distributed in the whole region very widely.
Proof of the use of textile technologies (cultivation / use of cotton) appear in the period of about -2,500-2,400 to the NE. (Watson, 1986: 83).
Alpine sites enter the initial period to -1,000 GG to the NE., Approximately the same time, dated the oldest of the ceramic fragments found there (Pozorski and Pozorski, 1987c: 38).
As you can see, the local timeline in this region is very and quite different, and the operating of many local chronologies at the same time, perhaps only add confusion with a comprehensive study of the issue. Thus, when it comes to the absolute chronology of the South American civilization center, it is worth considering as a number of local civilization chronologies, in one or another moment of time of its ancient history, we received those, or other, civilizational advantages.
Summing up all the sources, averaged frontier of the doctor and initial periods in the absolute chronology of the Andean region as a whole, it should be recognized as a temporary mark of about -1,800 to NE. "
.
Source - by text posted on the website Jay.Kujkobs, jqjacobs.net, 2001,
Translation and editors - free, Moscow, 03-2016.
9.
Sources.
1955, Collier, D. Cultural Chronology and Change AS Reflected in The Ceramics of the Viru Valley, Peru. Chicago: Chicago Natural History Museum.
1967, Lanning, E. P. Per; BEFORE THE INCAS. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. LUMBERAS, L. G. 1974 The Peoples and Culture of Ancient Per; Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.1974, The Peoples and Cultures of Ancient Peru by Luis G. Lumbraras, Betty J. Meggars.
1975, Moseley, M. E. The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization. Cummings Publishing Company, Menlo Park, California.
1986, Watson, R. P. C14 And Cultural Chronology On The North Coast of Per ;: Implas for a regional chronology. In Andean Archaeology, Papers in Memory of Clifford Evans, Edited by R. Matos M., S. A. Turpin, and H. H. Eling, Jr., PP. 83-129. Monograph XXVII, Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
1987C, Pozorski, S. G. and T. G. Pozorski: Chavin The Early Horizon and The Initial Period. In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, Edited by J. Haas, S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1991, Quilter, J. Late Preceramic Per;. Journal of World PREHISTORY 5 (4).
1999, Kornbacher, K. D. Cultural ELABORATION IN PREHISTORIC COASTAL PERU: AN EXAMPLE OF EVOLUTION IN A TEMPORALLY VARIABLE ENVIRONMENT. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18.
2001, James Q. Jacobs, JQJacobs.net website, including all the original sources specified by the author.
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Moscow,
2403-2016.

The cradle of the Great Civilization of Incas - the Valley of the Urubamba River will delight you with its beauty. And in the upper part of it is the capital of the Incas - Cusco. It is necessary to visit the famous ruins, the cultural monument to the ancient civilization - Machu Picchu is the sacred city of Inca in the mountains at an altitude of 2000 meters. On this attractions Peru Do not end. This beautiful land is rich in amazing rivers Titicaca and Amazon.

Be sure to visit the Evergreen Selva forests. And do not forget to go to the city of Arequipa, which is built from white stone of volcanic origin. Arequipa is considered the most beautiful city in the country. You can also be in the mysterious Valley of Naska. This area is famous for the huge geometric figures of animals that are visible even from space. Scientists can not solve the secret of origin and appointing this creation. Maybe you will succeed? And, of course, you will be waiting for a beautiful capital Peru - Lima is the city of Kings.

A completely any whimping vacationer can be performed in this part of Latin America. Presented in spa form, extreme and unique. You can relax on the beautiful sandy beaches that look like a drawn landscape. Other interesting entertainment in the form of diving, mountaineering, surfing or rafting are offered for active tourists. And for the mothers of active tourists, the green oasis of Wakhachin will offer you a snowboarding in the sand. And the uniqueness of Peru in its historical heritage, which can be admired in museums or personally come and walk in the dilapidated ancient cities.

In addition to the famous ancient historical monuments, there are others interesting places Peru. In the city of Cusco, it is necessary to visit a large market, you are soaked in the entire Peruvian atmosphere. It is worth visiting the province of Chachapoyas. The road to it will take about two days, but it is worth it. There you can admire the beautiful forests, a fortress on the mountain Cuelap, a giant Gokta waterfall. Do not hurry to quickly leave the city of Arequipa, because there is a canyon with a depth of 4 160 meters, and this is the most famous canyon in Colorado. Also in Peru there is Canyon Koloko. Differs in the incredible beauty of the rain forest in the city of Ikitos. And this is not all attractionswhich is so rich in the country.

Some mystery filled excursions Peruwho necessarily include visiting the pyramids. In the city of Chan Chan is the famous Pyramid, which is the temple of the Sun and the Moon. In El Broo there is a unique pyramid of Kao, which is decorated with colored embossed thread. These places show what an incredible action history Peru. Other excursion tours include visiting the Amazon River and Titicaca Lakes. You can choose calm tours of cities, museums and monuments.

The whole country is filled with beautiful historical, natural and architectural monuments that simply need to see with their own eyes. In the capital of Lima, you can visit the monument of colonial architecture - cathedral Santa Domingo, which was built in the 16th century. In this cathedral there is a tomb of Francisco Pissaro. In the administrative center of Ayakucho, you can visit another Cathedral on the central square, also in the center there is Obelisk, who was erected in honor of the victory in the Battle of Ayakucho in 1824 and a monument to José Sucre. But, of course, the main glory brought ancient monuments Peruwho excite the fantasy and cause admiration.

Museums Peru

It is impossible to go home without visiting interesting, which will show clearly as the heritage of this country. In Lima, there is a Larko Museum, which is dedicated to local history and pre-colombian civilizations. One of the largest museums in the whole country is the Nation Museum, which is also in Lima. In Cusco there is a museum that stores mysterious pre-mysterious art. And in Callao there is a fortress of King Philip, which became the museum of the Peruvian Armed Forces. And visit the snow-white exhibition palace in Lima, he will make you admire.

Another major center of cultural development of Indian peoples was in the northern part of South America. The agricultural tribes of the Andean Plateau Already in the first centuries of our era were familiar with the use of copper and, therefore, were at the stage of the Eneolita. From agricultural plants, in except corn cultivated potatoes. From 3 c. BC e. Tribes who lived in the Pacific Coast of Peru are beginning to play the best role in the development of culture. They created a powerful tribal union, headed by a moisture, who existed to 7 century. The center of the cultural development of the eats of Andov is mixed with the seaside valleys to the mountainous terrain of Nehru and Bolivia. Here the people of Aymara created a number of wonderful monuments of culture and art in his main settlement. Under the influence of Tiahuanaka in 8-10 centuries. Most Indian tribes of central Andes were located.

At 10 c. The leading role is back to the seaside regions, after Tiahuanaka suddenly ceases to exist. There is a flourishing of local styles separated from each other in the art of coastal cities. At the beginning of the 15th century The people of Kekhua, who lived in the mountainous regions, creates a primitive slave-ownership state, headed by the Inca dynasty. Taking advantage of the use of bronze weapons, which presented at that time, the last word of military equipment, Kechua conquer the seaside areas and subordinate them to themselves.

Successful conquering actions of Incan rulers create a huge state that has covered the territory of modern Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and partially chili during its heyday. In 1530-1532 The gang of Spanish adventurers under the leadership of Francisco Pissarro wins Peru and puts the beginning of the colonial domination of Spain in South America.

In some areas of architecture, the peoples of the ancient Peru made a significant step forward compared to the architectures of the peoples of Central America. The main construction principles, however, were the same both in Central and South America. So, for example, the ancient Peruvians, like the peoples of Central America, knew only a false arch.

It is known that the same building material often entails the occurrence of close architectural forms. Therefore, it is not surprising that the architecture of the seaside peoples of Peru is closer to, for example, to the architecture of Tolty-Cove of Central America, than to the architecture of its immediate neighbors - inhabitants of the Nagorno regions of Peru and Ecuador, which is widerly used in the construction of the tested stone of solid rocks. Palaces and temples of the inhabitants of Chan-Chan, Pachakamak, urine, Chikama and other coast cities, as well as in Central America, stand at low platforms and are close according to plan and general outlines to Central American monuments. Many buildings, judging by the pictures in the ceramics, had a roofing comb. This proximity between the two cultural regions is emphasized by the presence of a large number of pyramidal structures on the coast. In most cases, however, the appointment of these pyramids in Peru was other than those of central America, they most often intended for collective grave-custom, obviously ascending back to the period of the generic society. Their height usually ranges from 4 to 40 m. But the so-called the pyramid of the Sun, located on the south side of the urine river, with a height of 00 m had the length of the base over 240 m. The development of these burial structures undoubtedly contributed to the existence of the corpus embarrassment. Unlike the Central American Pyramids, some stepped pyramids of the Peruvian coast had not a rectangular, but a round shape.

The most impressive and interesting architectural complex of the Doinki period are the ruins of Tiahuaiaiac - a colossal architectural ensemble located on the territory of modern Bolivia. Tiahuanaka was created in 8-10 centuries. Natrol stake, or aimar. Many buildings remained unfinished, which indicates some unexpected event, stopped the life of the city. The ruins of the settlements occupy several square kilometers; The most interesting architectural monuments among these ruins is the so-called Temple of the Sun, or Kalasasayia, Akapan and Puma Punch.

The Akapan was originally a natural hill, which the builders of Tiachawanak artificially leveled and gave him the shape of a sixtecral. Then, this construction was observed with powerful defensive walls, which have both protruding and concave corners, - this location provided greater inaccessibility. The hill was divided into three towering alone over another terrace, which affected the effect of the coast of the coast. On the upper terrace raised 15 m above the level of the plain, on which the hill is located, there were numerous buildings concentrated around a large reservoir, lined with a treanted stone. You can judge the size of the accapany on the area of \u200b\u200bthis upper terrace - it is equal to 32.5 thousand kN. m. The defensive nature of this building does not leave doubt, although it is possible that at the peacetime, the Akapan served and the place for the cult festivals.

Another character has a Kalasasaya. This is an extensive rectangular building with a length of 129 m and a width of 118 m standing at a relatively low bunk terrace. The walls were formed from the colonnade of monolithic columns, the gaps between which were filled with masonry. Currently, the laying is cleared to build a church in the neighboring village. The entrance facing the east began to be a wide monolithic staircase located a bit of the north of the center of the building. Already the width of Kalasasayia itself indicates that this construction did not have a roof. Inside this gigantic rectangle was the S8KHB4 M sanctuary, located also on the bunk-tier rectangular terrace.

About the appointment of Calassaia scientists was made a lot of assumptions, up to the most fantastic. In reality, Kalasasayia was a building designed for the needs of the cult. Its appointment is also indicated by a complex of semi-flow premises, adjacent directly to the Kalasasayya and the conditional name of the Palace of sarcophagus, as well as the largest sculptural monument to Tiahuchanaki - the sun gates found in his fence.

We can judge about the architecture of the Incan period as in detailed descriptions of eyewitnesses of the times of Spanish conquest, and according to the ruins preserved to our time. Until now, the foundations and base parts of buildings in the Cusco - the former capital of the Incas - testify to massive stone masonry about their ancient origin, while the upper floor of a light red brick is already talking about Spanish time. Most Incan palaces and temples have been preserved to our time in this form.

Buildings of the Incan period were complexes of relatively narrow, mostly single-storey premises, symmetrically grouped around the central courtyard. The walls were usually very massive. The roofs, for very rare exceptions, were laid out of the cantsome and straw, but in the dry and cool climate of Peruvian Nagrai, they represented sufficient protection against bad weather. Facades in most cases were not decorated with anything, inside the premises in the thickness of the walls there were trapezoid niches for storing utensils and others household items. There were no windows or any holes for light, all lighting penetrated only through the door. Thus, the distinctive features of the Incan architecture were the strength of buildings, geometric simplicity of their appearance, symmetric equilibrium of individual parts and almost complete absence of decor. Especially brightly, these features affect the architecture of fortress structures, so characteristic of the military of the power of the Inca.

One of the most prominent structures of the Inca period was the main temple of the Sun in Cusco, which was called Camikant (Golden Fence). Shortly after the conquest, in 1534, he was given to the monastery of the monasses of Dominicans. As a result of their construction activities, the building fully lost its previous appearance and character.

According to the description of one of the Spanish eyewitnesses - Captain Ciez de Leon, the temple was acquired by a triple wall that had about 380 m around the circumference. Beautifully disheveled stones were driven to each other "in dry", without the use of the solution. On the wall ran the belt from the gold plates "In four widths of the width and four thumbs of the thickness," as Ciez de Leon says. In the main wall there was only one entrance leading from the Sun Square right to the main sanctuary. It concluded the large hall dedicated to the Sun, and five rooms of smaller sizes. In the latter there were sanctoes of the moon, thunder, planets Venus and dawn, rainbow and stars. In the central hall, the image of the god of the sun was erected in the form of a huge disc from cast gold, decorated with precious stones. Before them was maintained the restless fire. Around the main buildings were the premises of the priests and servants of the temple, stall for sacrifices, as well as the famous "golden" Inca Garden.

In general, however, the architecture of the ancient peoples of Peru, despite their large purely engineering achievements (system of masonry, anti-kindness of buildings, etc.), an artistic attitude was still significantly lower than the architecture of the peoples of Central America. Most Incan buildings are extremely similar to each other. This uniformity has largely contributed to the almost complete absence of external decoration.

A particularly sharp difference between the culture of the coastal strip and the Mountain regions of Peru is manifested in sculpture.

Already in the ancient sculptural monument of Highlands, the so-called monolith of Raimondi - a large diorite prism, dating back to our era - we see distinctive features Sculptures of mountain areas. This is primarily an emphasized stylization and fantastic image symbolism. On one of the sides of the monolith of Raymondi, an image of a deity made in a low relief is placed. In the hands of it, ending jaguar claws, two ceremonial rods, on the head a high headdress. The greatest attention of the viewer, however, attracts the face of the Divine: it is square and composed of stylized images of the open mouth of the Puma with sticking fangs, snake heads, etc. The last feature immediately leads to the memory of the statue of the Astex goddess of Cathötikue. With a more attentive review, it can be noted that the headdress of the deity is made up of the same, but even more stylized elements. In general, full of gloomy and formidable fiction The image of Monolith Raimondi is associated with the remnants of Totemism, with the magical symbolism of early forms of the religious consciousness of mankind.

One of the most significant sculptural works of Highlands is the relief on the gates of the Sun in Tiahuapack. On a colossal monolithic stone unit, which has a letter "II" form, a relief is carved off the face, depicting the Supreme Divine, standing on the elevation, with the rods in both hands. His headdress consists of rapely diverging snakes. The proportions of the figure and face with certain features are reminded by a deity on the monolith of Raimondi: the same squatness of the shape, unnaturally small legs, the same wide and square on the outlines of the face.

On both sides of the Supreme Divine there are in three rows of images of secondary deities or winged geniuses, they are all addressed to the main thing) the Divine. A number of heads are placed in a meander-like ornament that resembles the face of the Supreme Divine, but smaller.

The whole relief as a whole, despite his explicit incomplete, the impression of peace of mind and monumental greatness. Stone statues are preserved in Tiachawaisan, very conditional for proportions and schematic on execution. However, the coarse power of volumes, the solemn frontality of the composition produces the impression of great monumentality. Interestingly, the torso surface of these statues is covered with engraved patterns, close to the plot of froms on the sun gates.

Completely different in nature are the monuments of the coast of Peru. The peoples of the coast of Peru plastic mainly cooled to figure ceramics, standing at the level, almost not surpassed in the future.

The most outstanding of the figured ceramics of the peoples of the Pacific coast was the vessels of the Merch tribe. They were not only extremely diverse in shape, but often covered with paintings. These murals are the only one, in essence, the type of painting, known to us in the South American mainland, since the preserved fragments of the frescoes are so insignificant that they do not allow to judge the aesthetic advantages of the monumental painting of the peoples of South America. The development of plastics in uchik knows three main stages. On the first of them, the vessels have a form in the form of a spherical jug with a sprinkled narrow throat with a wedge like a narrow tube. Relief decorations are quite rare and always placed on the top of the vessel. In most monuments of early ceramics, a linear meter, the graphic element clearly prevails over the plastic. On white or slightly yellowish background Tulov vessel brown or black paint depicted combat scenes, episodes from everyday life (hunting, fishing, weaving, etc.) or mythological plots (the creation of the world, the struggle of heroes with fabulous monsters, etc.) . A characteristic feature of these paintings is rather graphic than the picturesque image principle. All the attention of the artist is given contours, the details are not given volume, but only emphasized by several confident and bold strokes. Despite some connectedness of archaic poses, these drawings attract their liveliness, immediacy and acute observation.

The next stage, referred to as some researchers, the "mature style" of urine undoubtedly not only represents a new, highest level in the development of sculpture among the peoples of the coast, according to and reflects some big shifts in their worldview. First of all, it should be noted that mythological themes completely disappears from the painting, and the sickening of vessels itself is applied much less frequently. The vessels lose their utilitarian form - most often they turn into an image of a human head.

The wonderful works of this time, which make up the pride of many museum assembly, form a wonderful suite of expressive, peculiar realistic portraits. Each characteristic individual trait that contributes to the portrait "recognition" of the depicted is dramatically emphasized. The dominant of the region in a rich headdress, blinding old woman, an old warrior with a leaning eye, a young woman with a swollen and tied cheek - each of these portrait VAZ not only transfers the appearance of the appearance of the depicted, but to some extent the overall warehouse of its character.

The masters of the third, and the last, stage, as opposed to their predecessors, almost did not depict people. The vessels of this period have a wide variety of forms, among them we encounter images of animals, plants and various fruits. Some of these figured vessels please the eye with the ability and immediacy in the transfer of nature, although these features never reach the truly realistic strength and expressiveness of the preceding period monuments. Unwittingly stops the vascular attention in the form of two sitting monkeys or in the form of a small lama cooked to sacrifice and looking backing everything around frightened big eyes. In some cases, plastic itself turns out to be no longer able to solve the problem and is limited to the transmission of the general outlines of the subject, and the remaining parts are filled with painting; The latter, however, during this period has an exclusive appointment. It has reached not only ceramics, but also applied art, in particular ornamented fabrics. The geometric ornament usually had a certain plot-symbolic meaning.

Although the wonderful courage of the states of Central and South America were barbaric destroyed by the Conquistadors, the traditions of this culture did not disappear without a trace.

Her traditions are true, in the depleted and changed form, they continued to live in applied art and partly in the architecture of these peoples also in the colonial period.

Contemporary art culture The peoples of South and Central America, especially Mexico, appeals to the wonderful monuments of their original heritage, exposing their creative innovative processing.

The geographically intermediate position between the cultures of Central America and Ancient Mexico and the culture of the ancient Peru occupied chibcha (on the territory of modern Colombia). The basis of the Chibcha farm, as well as other ancient-American tribes, was irrigation agriculture on mountainous territories treated with terraces. At home, they were built of wood and clay with a cone-shaped straw roof. The walls of the temples and the "palaces" were covered with paintings and threads, the roof was born with gold plates.

Ancient culture aymara In modern Peru and Bolivia (heyring it applies to the end of the VII century. and the beginning of the VIII century) focused mainly in the Titicaca Lake Pool. The characteristic residue of the culture of Aimar are tombs, resembling round towers (chulns), scattered throughout the territory engaged in Aimar. The culture of Aimar, as well as the culture of Chima (distributed in the northern part of Peru's coast), had a huge effect on the currently established at the end of the XI century. - early XII century. The state of the Inca.

The main occupation incov, as well as Mexico tribes, was agriculture using artificial irrigation. The public device of the Inca can be considered a early workers formation. Incas were the militant people, and their whole culture was subordinate to military-government goals, which led to a high level of defense and engineering structures. Channels were built, sometimes in tunnels pierced in a rock, aqueducts, dams up to 1200 m long and hanging bridges, reaching a span of 60 meters. Of great interest is the teeting system of pedestrian roads, for which (for the lack of ink animal inks) were maintained Communication in the country. These roads had a whole network of road posts, houses for stopping, provincial warehouses. In places of steep lifts, stairs were constructed. Construction equipment of these structures was at high altitude. The walls of ordinary residential buildings were often erected from raw bricks mixed with straw, on the foundation of clay, mixed with rubble. "Palaces" of nobility and temples were built from the plates of granite, Porfire, Diorita, Andesita. Plates skillfully strengthened one in the grooves of others. Stones came to each other very tight. Lime, as in Mexico, was not used. The fortress and retaining walls were made of stone slabs, sometimes out of huge stone blocks.

The buildings were in most cases one-story, less often - two- and three-story. It is possible to establish that they differed good resistance to earthquakes. The real arch, as in Mexico, the Incas did not know, separate supports and the eaves almost did not meet. The decoration of the walls were Niche to install the statues of gods and pointed stones in them, which served "hangers" for enemy skulls.

In the ensemble of cities, a symmetry was common, which was subordinate to the location of residential neighborhoods and squares. Streets, although narrow, were well packed, correctly melted and crossed at right angles. In the cities of Inca there were pools, public baths, parks for Lam. Step pyramids in Peru, similar to the appearance and magnitude with Mexican, did not have on the top of the temples. They were built from raw bricks and serves enormous tribal tips (usually contain several dozen and even hundreds of burials). In Peru was found a nine-speed pyramid "Koillaur" of an oval form (Table 164, Fig. 9 and 10). With a high level of engineering art from the artistic side, the architecture of the Inca was inferior to Mexican.

Big development received serf architecture in Peru. The cities and community settlements of the Incas were usually applied to the fortress walls. The fortress of the city of Ollantambo was located on a high plateau, where they climbed the steps cut down in the rock (Table 164, Fig. 1 and 6). The fortress wall, up to 35 m height, with teeth upstairs, built of large stones and plastered on both sides. It goes with zigzags along the contour of the plateau along the edge of the abyss.

The largest of those who have reached the complexes, over 5 hectares, is located in Guiracockopampa on artificially aligned territory. Buildings are grouped into a quadrilateral, surrounded by three walls. Inside are eight buildings of buildings located in three rows. The center is a huge open area on which a terrace with a staircase on the east side is erected, against the entrance to the area. All buildings are oriented by countries of light.

The capital of the state of the Inca was the city of Cusco to Peru, from which, however, there were few monuments left. It should be noted the characteristic feature of the "palace" construction: the doors and window holes had a trapezoidal form. The walls of the Saksahauman fortress are preserved on the hill over Cusco, isolated from huge, carefully selected blocks of stone, the outer surface of which is uniformly rounded (Table 164, Fig. 4 and 5).

In the area of \u200b\u200bLake Titicaca, a few separately standing gates carved from the monolithic stone of volcanic origin are preserved. Some of them, so called. "Sun gates" is richly decorated with relief images (Table 165, Fig. 1 and 2). In the same area, the burial structures (towers) are found round. They were folded from thoroughly treated stone quadrov. Each tower has one small hole leading to the burial site.

An interesting building of an unknown destination is so called. "palace" Pilko-Kima On Titicaca Island (Table 164, Fig. 8). This two-storey rectangular construction is built in size of 15.5 m per 13.2 m. At the corners from three sides were placed, apparently, the towers, two of which had an independent entrance. On the facade and from the sides of the building in the walls are preserved high niches. Central niches have inlets inside the building through narrow corridors. Inside there are twelve rooms associated with groups of two and four; Rear wall building deaf. The palace had a water supply.

Its construction mainly refers to the XV century. n. e.

The biggest state of the New World is the state of the Incas - existed a little more than three hundred years. And the imperial period, when the Incas subordinate to themselves almost all of the western part of the South American continent, lasted and less - about 80 years.

But for such a short period of time, the inconsisers and subordinates of them nations created a huge amount material values. Most of them were destroyed by the Spaniards. But monuments of monumental architecture completely failed. - And the samples of ancient architecture preserved to this day not only cause admiration, but also put a number of practically intractable issues in front of the researchers.

Multi-torch puzzles

The capital of the Empire Incas - the city of Cusco is located in a picturesque valley in the very center of Andes. During the heyday of the Empire, it was a carefully planned city, separated first by two sectors - the upper and lower, and later broken into four areas. The main ritual and administrative buildings of the Incan state were concentrated here: Palaces of the Supreme Incas, the main temples of the Empire, such as Cyan Kincho, the Sun Temple.

But the overwhelming majority of buildings in the first decades after the capture of the city conquistadors were disassembled. Carefully treated building blocks of Incan buildings went to the construction of the Winners-Spaniards. Most of the Colonial Cusco Center are erected from building material Inca. But the insignificant part of the ancient buildings, which lived to the present day, invariably causes an amazement by the construction of ancient masters. In the very center of Cusco there is a Palace of Inka Rock, the sixth ruler of the Inca.

The remains of its cyclopic walls are more reminiscent of the Palace, but an impregnable fortress. They are composed of gigantic andesi-ticov blocks weighing a few tons each. Andesit is a volcanic rock, the hardness is close to granites and basalts, it is extremely difficult to process. But the ancient Peruvian builders treated her as an artist with clay. The walls of the palace, like many other monumental buildings, are stacked in the technique of the so-called polygonal masonry.

In this construction engineering, processed blocks of different sizes and shape were used, the angles of some blocks had curly cuts corresponding to the cuts of adjacent blocks. Typically, monoliths have two or three such angle, but some are up to 10 and even 12! Due to such a reception, the maximum adhesion was achieved between the blocks, which was vital for such a seismic area, which is Cusco.

But how was the monoliths weighing a few tons (and sometimes more than ten tons) so that skillfully cut corners and grooves are part of each other as fragments of puzzle? At the same time, the ancient builders did not use any solution, that is, they laid the blocks - it is dry *.

Researcher of Peruvian architecture Jean-Pierre Protland from the University of California (Berkeley) in the early 90s of the last century held a whole series of experiments to restore the technology of processing the stone used by the ancient builders of Peru.

For processing Andesitic blocks, it used a different size of stone bumps found in the ancient Inka Khuaccoto Incanomine, located 19 km from Cuzco. It was from here that a stone was taken for buildings in the capital. Protane vividly in practice proved that with the help of a set of different weights, a piece can be transformed a piece of andesite rock into a rectangular block. And a few more hours it was required by the researcher in order to make the corresponding excavations and corners in the technique of polygonal masonry on a pair of blocks.

The film shot during the experiments demonstrates that the researcher performed all types of work without much difficulty. To fit the polygonal blocks, he put markers several times and, applying one block to another, revealed irregularities, which removed, thus obtaining perfectly coincident surfaces.

It would seem that the decision of the riddles of the ancient construction technology! However, for the experiment, Proven used blocks weighing no more than 10 kg. Therefore, he could, without much effort, could turn them out, turn over, try more about each other.

But in the construction of ancient peruvants such small blocks is very small. They were used, as a rule, for inserts between large blocks, the average weight of which was 200-300 kg. And large blocks in the same buildings weighed from 2 to 10 tons. As they could, with the help of the method of the Prodcena, it was considered to see the ideal interface of neighboring blocks to achieve the ideal conjugation of the neighboring blocks that the construction instrumental instruments were extremely simple.

Thanks to archaeological research, it is known that the opposite plumb and the level, which represents a flat vessel filled with water, was known from the measuring instruments. And how did the ancient builders managed to raise multi-torque blocks to a significant height and raise the perfect masonry from them? Where today the madding has been preserved without damage, there is no fact that the knife blade is not included in the joints between polygonal blocks, it is impossible to shove the banknote angle between them!

Jean-Pierre Protren in his work devoted to the results of the experiments, wrote that he managed to demonstrate how the Inca mined and treated the stone and how the finished blocks were customized. But he honestly admitted that he could not imagine how the ancient builders were shipped, transported and raised these huge monoliths.

Tanitolkai.

40 km north-west of Cusco is Olitai-Tambo - another extremely remarkable monument of Indian architecture. The city is located in the upper reaches of the Urubamba River at the beginning of the so-called Sacred Valley of the Inca, which led to Machu Picchu. To date, the monument has been preserved very well. The modern settlement is built on the foundations of Incan houses and retained the Dovespan Street Limitation. But this is not the main attraction of Olitantambo. Next to the settlement on the high climbing the nearest mountain is a temple complex.

It rises above the valley at a height of about 60 m. The only narrow stone staircase is leading to the top, the side of which the cascade of 17 agricultural terraces spread out.

On the top of the rock, the remains of a cyclopeous structure, which, without any reason, is called the church of the Sun. This building is destroyed, only the front wall is well preserved, folded from six huge monoliths of pink porphyra.

Monoliths have a height of up to 4 meters. All of them reaches 20-25 tons. Moreover, these blocks are not just docked with each other, the narrow inserts of 25 cm wide from the same material are squeezed between the blocks.

It is believed that the temple complex of the Olitantambo Inci began to build before the insistence of the Spaniards, and the conquest prevented the construction. Certificate of this - several dozen granite blocks weighing 10 tons and more scattered on top of the hill, at its foot and on the road leading to the quarries.

These monoliths are called "tired stones." Granite quarries, where blocks were cut down, are located on the other side of the valley, at a distance of 4 kilometers, if you count in a straight line. The quarry lie on cool, about 40 ", the slope of the mountain at an altitude of about 900 m above the valley. A number of natural issues arise: as the Indians could launch multi-torque blocks on this slope, then smuggle them through the stormy mountain river Urubamba (its width here is about 50 m), to drag a few kilometers along the valley and raise the same steep slope to a height of 60 m ? It is believed that the Indians for such work used wooden rollers and ropes.

But common sense makes it doubt the possibility of carrying out such works.

In the Ollantyatambo, "tired stones" lie not only on the road leading to the quarries, but also around the ruins of the temple of the Sun, and below, on the territory of the village, in the direction of the direction opposite. And this suggests that they were not thrown along the way, but, most likely, are the result of the destruction of the ancient temple complex. Inci, who came here the last, were not able to even move the monoliths weighing 15-20 tons and therefore left them where they lay.

Dancing with rocks

Another architectural masterpiece of ancient Peru is well known - Machu Picchu, who is also called the "city in heaven". It is located on the slope of the mountain, towering over the valley of the Urubamba river at an altitude of 2,400 m. A narrow single-band road rises to it, along which tourists go to this ancient city today.

Machu-Picchu complex demonstrates almost the entire set of construction techniques known in Incue time. Most of the buildings are composed of roughly treated incorrect stones. More significant buildings are elevated from the same type of rectangular blocks from the same Andesite. Polygonal masonry occurs, but rarely. And it is not so sophisticated as in Cusco.

The center of the complex is the main ritual buildings, the so-called main temple and the temple of the three windows. Their walls are composed of rectangular blocks weighing 100-200 kg. But they rest on huge processed monoliths, whose weight reaches 15-20 tons. By the way, here, in the center, there are several of the same monoliths that are not laid in the masonry. Based on this fact, scientists conclude that the city was abandoned until the end of construction.

In the center of the ritual part of the complex there is an unusual structure, which is called Intiuatan today ("Binding Sun").

This is a natural rock led, carefully treated for giving a rock of certain geometric outlines.
The residues of the vertical pillar rises in the design center. Scientists believe that Intiuatan played the role of the solar watches, according to which the Incan astronomers determined the change of seasons.

But it is surprising that there is about ten such rocks in Machu Picchu, thoroughly treated, sometimes having polished the entire length of the protrusion of the face, recess, steps. Presumably, such semi-cooked cliffs ancient Peruvians were used as altars.

The riddles of the ancient Kameshchikov

Amazes the unprecedentedness and variety of construction and architectural techniques who used the ancient Peruvians. Many researchers believe that the cyclopic walls were erected by unknown masters long before the Incas. Incas who came to these places last, adopted part of ancient construction skill. Modern engineers and builders who are interested in issues of Peruvian construction arts cannot understand and even more so explain the technical possibility of such technicians.

How to pull and raise the monolithic block of 15-20 tons with a steep slope? On wooden rollers with rope? How to immerse such a block on a wooden raft, swinging on the waves of the mountain river? How, with the help of primitive tools, erect the building with the walls of polygonal masonry, without having special lifting equipment? And this is not all the questions that arise with a close acquaintance with the architectural heritage of the ancient Mason of Peru. Perhaps they owned fundamentally different construction technologieswhich we do not even have permission about today?

Andrei Zhukov, Candidate of Historical Sciences