Even in the first year of history faculty, the author came up with the idea to fill a gap in world history by writing the history of peoples living between cultural regions: Western Europe, Levant (Middle East) and China (Far East). The task turned out to be extremely difficult; it could not be solved without the help of geography, because the boundaries of the regions during the historical period repeatedly moved, the ethnic content of the Great Steppe and neighboring countries often changed both as a result of ethnogenesis processes and because of the constant migrations of ethnic groups and the displacement of some worldviews by others. The physical and geographical situation did not remain stable either. In place of forests, steppes and deserts arose both due to climatic fluctuations and due to the predatory influence of man on the natural environment. As a result, people had to change their systems of economic activity, which, in turn, influenced the nature of social relationships and cultures. And cultural ties brought diversity to the worldview of the population of the Eurasian continent, in each era - specific.
All these components of the historical process are so closely interconnected that it is impossible to omit any of them, but if we add chronological, genealogical, sociological, etc. clarifications to them, it turns out that the book turns out to be a collection of various information and, informing the reader "What and who?" Will not contain an answer to the questions: "how?", "Why?" and "what is what?", for the sake of which its mark was undertaken. Obviously, to solve the problem, it is necessary to apply suitable research techniques.
To describe the events taking place in Eastern Eurasia, a three-level presentation technique was applied. The smallest details necessary to clarify the course of events were described in the article using traditional methods of historical research. More than a hundred of these articles - historical, geographical and archaeological - had to be written.
The second level - generalization - gave life to special monographs (Hunnu. M., 1960; Huns in China. M., 1974; Ancient Turks. M., 1967; Searches for a fictional kingdom. M., 1970; Discovery of Khazaria. M., 1966 ). All of them were also performed using traditional methods, with one exception - they were written not in academic language, but in a “funny Russian syllable,” which increased the comprehensibility of the text and expanded the circle of readers.
However, the main goal was not achieved, for the question was left unanswered: where are the "beginnings and ends", that is, the boundaries, of historical and geographical phenomena? Therefore, it was necessary to specially analyze the theory of the origin and disappearance of ethnic groups against the background of the changing natural environment... Only after this did it become possible to move from describing history to understanding it as a series of regular processes in the biosphere and sociosphere. But since the biosphere, like the entire surface of the Earth, is mosaic, the collisions of ethnogenesis with each other are inevitable. Then there was a need for another book, namely this one, now offered to the reader. But is the task worth the labor that is necessary to solve it? It's worth it, and here's why.
In the history of mankind, not all eras are illuminated equally. Where the processes of sociogenesis, ethnogenesis and noogenesis (cultural development) proceeded without disturbance from hostile neighbors, it was easy for historians. In clashes between ethnic groups or states, tragic consequences were simply recorded and one of the parties was declared guilty of the disasters of the other. But where the whole canvas of history took place in the zone of antagonistic contact, it is very difficult to grasp the pattern; therefore, these sections of history remained either unwritten, or written extremely fluently and superficially. It is a pity, because these epochs were of great importance not only for their participants, but also for world history.
These include the period of the IX-XII centuries. in Southeast Europe. There were contacts of Slavs with Rus, nomads with sedentary, Christians with pagans, Khazars with Jews. Everything was mixed and confused until Vladimir Monomakh brought clarity with his armed hand, after which it finally became clear where his own and where the others were.
And here the philistine question constantly arises: why study the processes that we cannot control? Is there a practical sense in this, justifying labor and material losses? Let's answer with examples! People do not know how to manage earthquakes or cyclone paths, but seismography and meteorology help to save themselves from natural disasters and, conversely, use favorable conditions with the greatest effect. After all, it is not all the same with a tsunami, which we cannot prevent, go to a nearby mountain or let the ocean wave wash itself down to the bottom. For the sake of one's own salvation, it is necessary to study volcanic activity, as spontaneous as ethnogenesis.
Formulation of the problem
The principle of ethnogenesis - the extinction of impulse due to entropy, or, what is the same, the loss of the system's passionarity due to the resistance of the environment, ethnic and natural, - does not exhaust the variety of historical and geographical collisions. Of course, if ethnic groups, and even more so their complicated structures - superethnoses - live in their ecological niches - enclosing landscapes, then the ethnogenesis curve reflects their development quite fully. But if large migrations occur, associated with social, economic, political and ideological phenomena, and even with different passionate tension of ethnic groups participating in the events, then a special problem arises - a break or displacement of direct (orthogenic) directions of ethnogenesis, which is always fraught with surprises, such as the rule is unpleasant and sometimes tragic.
If in such collisions the ethnos does not disappear, then the process is restored, but the exogenous influence always leaves scars on the body of the ethnos and the memory of losses, often irreparable. Super-ethnic contacts generate violations of the pattern. They should always be taken into account as zigzags, the very presence of which is a necessary component of ethnogenesis, for no one lives alone, and relations between neighbors are diverse.
When two systems interact, the problem is easily solved by the opposition "we are our enemies", but with three or more systems, it is difficult to get a solution. Namely, three ethnocultural traditions collided in Eastern Europe in the 9th – 11th centuries, and only in the 12th century. the zigzag of history was overcome, after which a cultural flowering began with a passionary decline, that is, the inertial phase of ethnogenesis. This is a unique variant of ethnic history, and thus it is of interest in a number of aspects, which will be discussed below.
The evolutionary theory of Darwin and Lamarck was proposed to explain speciation, and ethnogenesis is an intraspecific and specific process. For this reason, the application of the principles of evolution to ethnic phenomena is illegal.
Ethnic processes are discrete (intermittent), and exceptions to this rule - persistent (solid, stable) - do not prolong their life, but stop it, as Faust stopped a moment; but it was then that Mephistopheles caught him! This means that such a solution to the problem of immortality is contraindicated for a dynamic ethnic group.
For a relict ethnos-persistent, three ways are possible, besides complete isolation: 1) wait until the neighbors destroy it (elimination); 2) join the living super-ethnos during the phase change and gain a foothold in it (incorporation); 3) crumble pink (dispersion). All three variants can be traced back in just one century - XII. This century is like an intermission between the breakdown of the world of Islam, the reanimation of Byzantium and the childish rampage of "Christian" Europe, magnificently called the "crusades." Here it is easy to trace the variations in the relationship between Russia and the Steppe. The most remarkable historians of the 18th-19th centuries were engaged in this, as a result of which one should familiarize oneself with their ideas, but, of course, from the point of view of ethnology, for this new science has already shown what it is capable of. And the main thesis of ethnology is dialectical: a new ethnos, young and creative, arises suddenly, breaking down a dilapidated culture and demoralized, that is, having lost the ability to create, the way of life of old ethnic groups, be they relics or simply obscurantists; in a thunderstorm and a storm, he claims his right to a place under the sun, in blood and torment he finds his ideal of beauty and wisdom, and then, as he grows old, he collects the remains of antiquities that he once destroyed. This is called rebirth, although it would be more correct to say “degeneration”. And if a new impetus does not shake up decrepit ethnic groups, then they are threatened with transformation into relics. But tremors are repeated, albeit randomly, and humanity exists in its diversity. This is what our conversation with the reader will be about.
Another important direction of the foreign policy of the Kiev princes was the "steppe policy" - the protection of the borders of Russia from the nomads. The Pechenegs became a serious opponent. The first mentions of them in the chronicles refer to the years of Igor's reign.
In 969 the Pechenegs besieged Kiev. Svyatoslav, who fought in the Balkans, made a rapid transition and defeated them. In the 90s of the X century. there is a new onslaught of the Pechenegs. It is known that to fight them, Vladimir I (980_1015) went to Veliky Novgorod for the army. It was then that the prince erected fortifications in the south of the country, along the Desna, Ostr, Trubezh, Sula, Stugna rivers. The German missionary Brun, who was with the Pechenegs in 1007, recalled that Vladimir accompanied him to the very borders of Kievan Rus, "which he protected from the Pechenegs with the largest palisade over a very large space." Under 1036, the chronicles place the last message about the Pechenegs' raid on Kiev. Yaroslav (who was in Novgorod) came with a strong army, was "slashing evil". According to legend, on the place where Yaroslav defeated the Pechenegs, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built.
After the battle, the attacks of the Pechenegs on Russia cease. The remnants of the Pechenegs migrated to the southwest. To the south of Kiev, nomadic Türks (Torks, Berendei, Pechenegs) began to settle, who recognized themselves as subjects of the Kiev prince. "Black hoods" (as they were called in Russia) became a kind of "watchmen" in the south.
But since 1037, Russia has been threatened by new Turkic nomadic tribal associations - the Polovtsians. Kiev no longer played a leading role in the fight against the Polovtsy. She goes to the prince of Pereyaslavl South - Vladimir Monomakh. From 1061 to 1210, Russia endured 46 large raids of the Polovtsians. 34 times the Polovtsians took part in the internecine wars of the Russian princes. 1/15 of the Russian lands were destroyed annually. The most successful campaigns against the Polovtsians were those in which the united squads of the Russian princes participated (1109-1110 - "Don campaign" - Prince Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd - "Polovtsians were defeated in the depths of their steppes"). At the beginning of the XIII century. the forces of the Polovtsians have dried up. But new enemies will approach the borders of Russia.
Russia and Europe
During the times of Kievan Rus, trade, cultural, diplomatic ties were established with European countries - Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany, England, etc. Marriages were also concluded between representatives of the Kiev princely house and European dynasties, which reflected the growth of political power and international authority of Rus. So, the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna was married to the French king Henry I, Elizabeth - to the Norwegian king Harald, Anastasia - to the Hungarian king Andrew.
The sons of the English king Edmunt lived at the court of Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav's grandson, Vladimir Monomakh, was married to the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald - Gita.
It is certainly useful (although not always pleasant) for any people to encounter completely different customs and culture. Even before the formation of Ancient Rus, part of the Eastern Slavs were influenced by the steppe inhabitants. Among the positive aspects of the relationship, it is necessary to highlight the economic benefits that became available to part of the Slavic tribes after falling under the rule of the Khazar Kaganate. The tribute was not burdensome, but entering the Asian market allowed the Slavs to develop trade relations much faster and more actively than before.
But it was not only in peaceful life that peoples collided. As part of the Khazar troops, it was often possible to meet Slavic mercenaries, who, subject to success in military campaigns, such a life brought fame and money. Later, when Kievan Rus became stronger, it was possible to get rid of the influence of the Khazar Kaganate almost immediately, which once again confirms the Khazars' not too strong power over their northern neighbors.
The Pechenegs who followed the Khazars were a much more terrible force. But if it was possible to win them over to our side, as the princes in Russia regularly tried to do, then they became powerful, albeit not very loyal, support in various raids and confrontations. And also the regular raids of nomads forced the princes to build new cities and strengthen the existing ones, which, albeit a little, but contributed to the strengthening of Kievan Rus.
About Polovtsy it is worth mentioning separately. When the first years of the raids ended, kinship and military-political alliances between Russia and the Polovtsian land became commonplace. Both peoples, especially on the borders with each other, changed greatly both externally and internally. Knowledge, customs, and sometimes religion - the inhabitants of Russia and the Polovtsians adopted all this from each other. And such relationships most often lead to favorable consequences: each developed to the extent that the culture of the other allowed it, while bringing something of his own.
It is worth noting, however, that for the Russians the Polovtsians most often remained steppe pagans, "filthy" and "cursed". The status of Russian princes was higher, noble princesses from Russia never left for the steppe, did not become wives of the Polovtsian khans (with some exceptions). Relatively peaceful relations helped to avoid raids and plunder, but did not make the Polovtsians and Russians friends forever.
The same can be said about all steppe dwellers in general. Complete trust was hardly possible in conditions of frequent conflicts or ordinary raids, so it is true that Russia had contact with the Steppe, but never stopped looking after its neighbors.
History and LED
Russia and the Steppe: a system of mutual influences and ambiguity of interpretations Directions of Byzantine influence: Byzantium helped Russia to become orthodox state... The adoption of Christianity in Russia sharply increased the influence of Byzantine culture. The baptism of Rus in accordance with the Orthodox rite introduced the Kiev prince into the circle of European monarchs and made it possible to use the method of securing a dip typical for the Middle Ages. The baptism of Russia also gave us slavic alphabet and introduced to the European cultural tradition.
Russia and Byzantium. Russia and the Steppe: system of interactions and ambiguity of interpretations
Directions of Byzantine influence:
- Byzantium helped Russia to become an Orthodox state. Constantinople sent its priests to Russia, appointed a metropolitan for the Russian church, and sent icons there. The adoption of Christianity in Russia sharply increased the influence of Byzantine culture. The baptism of Rus in accordance with the Orthodox rite introduced the Kiev prince into the circle of European monarchs and made it possible to use the method of securing a dip typical for the Middle Ages. unions through dynastic marriages. The baptism of Rus also gave us the Slavic alphabet and introduced us to the European cultural tradition.
- The Russian state were borrowed ceremonial, rituals (for example, wedding to the kingdom, etc.)
- The world of Byzantium, the world of Christianity brought new construction, artistic experience and traditions to Russia.The Russians built churches according to the Greek model. Our ancestors received Orthodox icons from Byzantium. Thanks to the Byzantine influence, Russia was greatly elevated in cultural and religious terms. Byzantine art played an important role in this regard.
- Economically, Byzantium was the leading power in Europe, therefore, achieving profitable trade privileges for its merchants was desirable for any then state and for Rus too, and all Rus' campaigns against Byzantium ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty, in fact, a trade treaty that regulated foreign trade between the two countries. The fact of the conclusion of a trade agreement between the two countries was actually an act of recognition by Byzantium of the independent statehood of Rus.
Russia and the Steppe:
The formation of Kievan Rus as a state, the formation of the Old Russian nationality took place in conditions of constant confrontation and interaction with the nomads of Eastern Europe of the late 9th - early 13th centuries: the Pechenegs, Guzes, Polovtsians.
The nomadic periphery played an important role in the historical processes of that time. And the point is not only that their struggle as a whole strengthened social and political ties in the Old Russian state, despite the frequent use of nomadic mercenaries in princely strife (the constant struggle with the steppe supported the courage and enterprise of the Russian princes and their squads a lot. It especially imposed a harsh , a warlike imprint on the inhabitants of the southern and souththe eastern outskirts, where close proximity to the barbarians brought a lot of rudeness to Russian customs). The inhabitants of Ancient Russia also contacted nomads at the level of trade exchange; in the border areas there were many joint settlements. Under the influence of the Slavic farmers, the nomadic tribes settled down, which sometimes ended in assimilation. The khans' kinship ties with our princes paved the way for the influence of Russian citizenship, which slowly but irresistibly led to a softening of barbarism. Becoming a part of the Old Russian people, the nomads introduced not only an anthropological type, but some cultural traditions and customs. All these factors make it necessary to study the nomadic peoples of the southern Russian steppes not only as an external and hostile force.
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One of the essential factors historical development South Russian principalities of the XI - early XIII century. was their borderline position. To the south and southeast of them is the Polovtsian steppe. For almost two centuries, nomadic Türkic-speaking tribes of the Polovtsy lived here, entering into various relations with Russia. Sometimes they were peaceful, accompanied by marriages and military alliances, but more often, as discussed above, hostile. It is no coincidence that Russia was faced with the urgent task of strengthening the southern and southeastern borders. The famous appeal of the author of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" - "Block the gates of the field", addressed to the Russian princes in 1185, was topical throughout the history of Russian-Polovtsian relations. In order for the reader to imagine more clearly what kind of enemy South Russia faced "face to face" in the 11th - early 13th centuries, it is advisable to give at least a brief outline of the history of the Polovtsians. For the first time the Rusichi faced the Polovtsy in 1055, when the horde of Khan Balush approached the southern borders of Rus. By this time, the Polovtsians occupied the entire space of the steppes, displacing the Pechenegs, Torks, Berendeys from there. The Polovtsian land had no stable borders. The nomadic way of life forced the Polovtsians to occupy all the lands convenient for nomads, to invade the borders of neighboring states and seize (albeit temporarily) their marginal territories. To a greater extent, the southern Russian borderlands suffered from the Polovtsians, but their predatory campaigns also reached the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Like their predecessors, the Polovtsians were divided into separate khanates or associations, each of which occupied "its own" territory. The northern border of the Polovetsky Field was on the Left Bank - in the interfluve of Vorskla and Orel, on the Right Bank - in the interfluve of the Ros and Tyasmin, the western border - but on the Ingulets line. In the south, it included the North Caucasian, Azov and Crimean steppes. Ethnically, this huge country was not only Polovtsian. Other peoples also lived here: Alans, Yass, Khazars, Guzes, Kosogs. They were probably the main population of the cities of Sharukan, Sugrov, Balin on the Donets, Saksin on the Volga, Korsun and Surozh in the Crimea, Tmutarakan on Taman. In various written sources, these centers are called Polovtsian, or Kipchak, but this is not because they were inhabited by the Polovtsy, but because they were within the Polovtsian land or were in tributary dependence on the Polovtsians. Some of the previously existing cities (for example, Belaya Vezha) were destroyed and turned into Polovtsian winter quarters. The history of the Polovtsians after their settlement of the Eastern European steppes is divided by researchers into four periods. The first - the middle of the XI - the beginning of the XII century, the second - the 20-60s of the XII century - the third - the second half of the XII century, the fourth - the end of the XII - the first decades of the XIII century. Each of these periods has its own characteristics both in the field of the internal development of the Polovtsians, and in the field of their relationship with the Russians and other neighbors. In general, the first period is characterized by the extraordinary aggressiveness of the Polovtsians. They rushed to the borders of rich agricultural countries, invaded their borders, robbed the local population. A passion for profit pushed certain representatives of the Polovtsian elite to participate in the wars of the Russian princes with each other or with their western neighbors. For this help they received a double price: rich gifts from the allies and indemnity from the vanquished. During this period of their history, the Polovtsians were at the initial, tabor stage of nomadism, characterized by the constant movement of their hordes across the steppe. This circumstance made it difficult to organize serious military expeditions of Russian military squads against them. The beginning of the XII century. was marked by significant changes in the life of the Polovtsians. By this time, the entire steppe space was divided between separate hordes, and each of them roamed within a well-defined territory. Now the Polovtsians, who turned out to be the direct neighbors of Russia, could not invade its borders with impunity. Retaliatory strikes awaited them. During the first two decades, the combined forces of the southern Russian principalities inflicted several serious defeats on the Cumans. In 1103 they were defeated in the area of \u200b\u200bthe river. Milk, flowing into the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, in 1109, 1111 and 1116. the same fate befell the Donetsk Polovtsians. During these campaigns, Russian squads captured the cities of Sharukan, Sugrov and Balin. The chronicle reports that the Polovtsians, as a result of the Russian military campaigns in the Steppe, were driven "beyond the Don, beyond the Volga, beyond the Yaik". It was then, as the researchers believe, that Otrok Khan left with his horde from the Seversky Donets region "to the Obes" - to the Caucasus. The second period of Polovtsian history coincided in time with the initial stage of feudal fragmentation in Russia, marked by an exacerbation of inter-princely relations, frequent internecine wars, and rivalry of applicants for the grand ducal table. In these conditions, the fight against the Polovtsy faded into the background. Individual campaigns of a few Russian squads into the steppe could not achieve tangible victories. The princes, especially the representatives of the Chernigov Olgovichi, thought more about how to use the Polovtsy in the struggle for Kiev than about the security of the borders. The establishment of allied relations with the Polovtsy (wild), their involvement in solving the internal affairs of Russia contributed to the relatively rapid revival of the power of the nomads. At this time, they are experiencing the highest stage of their development. The transition to the second mode of nomadism was completed, characterized by the emergence of stable boundaries for each horde and the presence of permanent winter quarters. Instead of large, but unstable associations, small hordes appeared, consisting of both consanguineous and non-consanguineous families and clans. In Polovtsian society, military-democratic relations were replaced by early feudal ones. The third period of Polovtsian history is marked, on the one hand, by the increasing pressure of the nomads on the southern Russian borderlands, on the other, by the consolidation of Russian forces for retaliatory anti-Polovtsian campaigns. Most often, Russian squads were sent to the Dnieper region, where the Dnieper and Lukomorian Polovtsian hordes were in control, threatening the safety of the Dnieper (Greek) trade route, especially its southern section. Of course, this path was not, as it is sometimes asserted, in the hands of the Dnieper Polovtsi, but in order for it to fulfill its purpose, it needed constant protection, sending Russian troops to the most dangerous areas (Kanev, the area of \u200b\u200bthe rapids). The chronicle speaks of such campaigns under 1167, 1168, 1169 and other years. Russian princes also went to the hinterland of the Polovtsian nomads. In 1184 the regiments of the princes Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Rostislavich defeated the Polovtsy at the mouth of the Orel. Almost the entire Polovtsian elite was captured: Kobyak Karenevich with his sons, Izay Bilyukovich, Tovly, Osoluk and others. The Russian regiments carried out a similar campaign in 1187, as a result of which the Polovtsian winter quarters on the river were defeated. Samara. In contrast to the Dnieper Polovtsi, who did not represent in the second half of the XII century. any significant threat to Russia, the Don, led by the energetic Khan Konchak, constantly invaded the Russian lands, robbed the population. About Konchak, the son of the Otrok Khan and the Georgian princess Gurandukht, Russian chroniclers speak of either a mighty hero "who has demolished the Court", or as a cursed and godless destroyer of Russia. The defeat of the Russian regiments of Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185 showed that the forces of one principality were not enough for a successful struggle against the "Don Union" of Konchak. The defeat at Kayala "opened" the southeastern border of Russia with the Steppe. The Don Polovtsians were able not only to plunder the border areas of the Novgorod-Seversky and Pereyaslavsky principalities with impunity, but also to invade the boundaries of the Kiev land. The fourth period of Polovtsian history is characterized by some improvement in Russian-Polovtsian relations. The chronicles mark for this time mainly the participation of the Polovtsy in the princely civil strife, the main theater of which was the Galician and Volyn principality. Of course, this does not mean that the Polovtsians have abandoned their traditional policy of plunder altogether. Even after their defeat in two battles with the Mongol-Tatars (in 1222 and 1223), the Polovtsians carried out attacks on the Russian lands. In 1234, they ravaged Porosye and the vicinity of Kiev. This was their last action. The power of the Polovtsians in the southern Russian steppes came to an end. Sources indicate that in the 30s - early 40s, the Polovtsians fought a stubborn struggle with the Mongol-Tatars, but were conquered by them and became part of the Golden Horde. Thus, the Polovtsians, who occupied vast areas of the southern Russian steppes, over 200 years of their history, have gone from nomadic nomads to the creation of a nomadic state association in the socio-economic area and from military democracy to feudalism in the field of social relations. A huge role in this belongs to the Old Russian state, which was at an immeasurably higher (in comparison with the Polovtsi) stage of its historical development.
