Russian language lesson (igz) in 10th grade on the topic: “Vocabulary and phraseology”

Lesson type: repeating and generalizing
Lesson type: workshop
Forms of organizing educational activities in the classroom: individual, pair, group, frontal, etc.

Lesson equipment: multimedia presentation, interactive whiteboard, material for students.
Target:

Systematize what you have learned using vocabulary and phraseology.

Teach analysis and editing of sentences (identifying and correcting speech errors).

Practice problem solving skills in Unified State Examination tests.

Develop a culture of oral and written speech.

To develop students’ monologue speech and the ability to use phraseological units in their speech.

Cultivate a conscious attitude towards what is being studied.

Teacher's opening speech.
Hello guys! Today we are repeating the section “Vocabulary and Phraseology”. What goals and objectives will we set for ourselves in this lesson?

(Students’ answers: systematize what has been learned, identify the degree of assimilation of the acquired knowledge and readiness to solve Unified State Exam tests for this section).

Now everyone specifies what they know about this topic. To do this, fill out the table:

	Information	I know	Not I know	Want know
	Lexical concepts, ability to find and use them: paronyms, homonyms, antonyms, metaphor, dialectism, epithet, allegory, litotes, hyperbola, personification, antithesis.
	What is a phraseological unit?

Before moving on to the main part of our lesson, we will do some vocabulary work. A literate person must pronounce words correctly. Orthoepy teaches us this. I suggest you do an orthoepic warm-up. In the Unified State Exam, this is task A 1. There are sheets of words on the tables. Your task: within 2 minutes, place emphasis on the proposed words. Start working (students place the emphasis within 2 minutes).
Plum, more beautiful, cork, call, religion, hyphen, began, adolescence, arrangement, facilitate, means, driver, lay, wholesale, insightful, bows, scarves, catalogue, blinds, airports, bear fruit.

Test yourself (There is a slide with the correct answers on the board).

(correct: plum, prettier, cork, call, religion, hyphen, began, adolescence, arrangement, facilitate, means, driver, lay, wholesale, clairvoyant, bows, scarves, catalogue, blinds, airports, bear fruit).

Thanks for the work.

Generalization of knowledge on the topic.

Teacher's word:
Now we move on to the main part of our lesson: we repeat what we have learned on the topic “Vocabulary”.
- What is vocabulary? (The vocabulary of a language, some of its style, sphere, as well as someone’s works, a separate work).
- What is the name of the section of linguistics where vocabulary is studied? (Lexicology).

- What does the concept of “lexical meaning of a word” include? (This is the semantic content of a word, equally understood by people speaking a given language).
Teacher's word:

Lexical meaning establishes a connection between a word and the object, phenomenon, concept, action, quality, number it calls:

zealous - very diligent, to meet - to meet by chance. Lexical meaning reveals features by which it is possible to determine properties common to a number of objects (actions, features), and also establishes differences that distinguish a given object (action, feature).

Let's continue to get acquainted with the lexical meaning of words.

Interpretation, mentality, expansion . How do you understand the meaning of these words?

Interpretation- lat. Mediation 1. Interpretation, clarification of the meaning, significance of something. 2. In the art of an actor, director, musician, etc. - creative development of any artistic work, determined by the ideological and artistic concept and individual characteristics of the artist.

Mentality- lat. Way of thinking, soul. 1. A set of ideological (ideological, religious, aesthetic, psychological, ethical, etc.) ideas characteristic of an individual and the people as a whole. 2. About the mindset, the nature of thinking.

Expansion- lat. Expansion, distribution. Expansion of spheres of influence of monopolistic associations and groups, states, carried out both by economic methods (export of capital) and non-economic methods (armed seizure of new territories, diplomatic pressure).

(Students try to interpret the words. Next, the teacher, helping students to correctly formulate their thoughts, gives an interpretation of the words). Students write down their word combinations in their notebooks.

IN further work students define these lexical concepts, Howparonyms, homonyms, antonyms, metaphor, dialectisms, epithets, allegory, litotes, hyperbole, personification, antithesis.
Independent work students (record on index sheets)
1) Identify errors in sentences associated with mixing paronyms :

1. The unit commander sent the soldier’s parents a letter of gratitude.

2. The owners left the house, going on vacation, and the servants put covers on the furniture.

3. The prose writer wrote a successful work about modern life.

4. I am a Megafon cellular subscriber.
Answer: (on slide)
Write down the sentences in corrected form.

3) Which dictionary will help you if you have difficulty in making the right choice words?
4) What linguistic phenomenon is mentioned in the poem:
There are many different keys:
Spring key among the stones,
Treble clef, curled,
And a regular door key.
Why do homonyms arise? What are the reasons for their appearance in the language? (Homonyms can arise as a result of sound changes, entered from other languages ​​and accidentally coinciding in sound., the collapse of polysemy).
5) Assignment. Omoforms
What parts of speech can words be?THREE, FAMILY, MY, SIMPLE, GLASS depending on the context?
Make up phrases or sentences with them so that part of the speech is not in doubt.
6) Assignment. Omoforms
What parts of speech is the word?"by" in sentences?
A) The mail was delivered by water. (noun)
B) Disagreements were resolved through negotiations. (pretext)
B) And he doesn’t know how to say a word, and he’s also from St. Petersburg! (adverb)
Question: you need to clarify the meaning of homonym words, but you do not have a homonym dictionary. What dictionary will you use?

( You can use explanatory dictionaries edited by S.I. Ozhegov. etc., and also use the computer encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius).

9. And now the next task, more difficult, is working with text.
(Organization of accompanying repetition).

(1) It is a waste of time to try to evaluate relationships, to painstakingly and closely analyze what separates us. (2) The main question is still another question to which we must find an answer if we want to improve or save our relationship: “What unites us?” (3) The wise rightly said that our relationships with other people will last as long as what unites us will exist. (4) If we are connected by a house, a dacha, money, external attractiveness or any other short-term things that exist today but not tomorrow, then the first problems in this area will be

Our relationships are also jeopardized. (5) Relationships in which people

nothing unites anything anymore, they look like Potemkin villages, where outwardly everything

normal, but behind the beautiful façade there are only problems and emptiness. (6)Often

such formal connections are worse than loneliness.

(7) People are united by the difficulties and crises they have experienced together.

moments. (8) If in overcoming obstacles, in finding solutions, all parties

strive and fight equally to make things better,

this not only strengthens any relationship, but also gives birth to new, more

deep, amazing states of mind that open new horizons

and directing the development of events in a completely different direction.

(9) You need to learn to take the first step without losing yourself

and your inner dignity. (10) It takes two for a relationship, and

any step we take should cause a resonance, a response from another person, for

which will be followed by his reaction, his reciprocal steps towards us. (11)If

after our continued efforts this does not happen, then

one of the conclusions suggests itself: either we are taking the wrong steps, or our

relationships are built on shaky ground, because they rest on only one

person and one person tries to carry everything on himself, and this is already absurd

and artificially.

(12) For any relationship to be successful, both parties need to

tried to overcome feelings of possessiveness and selfishness. (13)Very often

we don't see the individuality, the uniqueness of the people we love, and

we continue to view them as a reflection of our own views,

requirements, ideas about what they should be. (14) We don't

must try to educate and remake people in their own image and

likeness. (15) Love requires a feeling of air and freedom of the soul. (16) People,

those who love each other do not dissolve in each other and do not lose their

individuality; they are two columns supporting the roof of one

(According to E. Sikirich*)

Assignments to the text.

1. Indicate a sentence that uses antonyms.

2. Read a fragment of a review based on the text..

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text.

Some terms used in the review are missing. Paste

for places of passes (A, B, C, D) numbers corresponding to the number

term from the list. Write down in the table under each letter

the corresponding number.

Write each number in a separate box according to

with the samples given in the form.

concepts. For this purpose, already in the first paragraph he uses (A)_____

(“separates” - “unites”). Syntactic means - (B)_____

(in sentences 4, 13), trope - (B)_____ (“they are two columns,

supporting the roof of one temple" in sentence 16)

and lexical means - (D)_____ (“take the first step” in a sentence

concepts under consideration."

List of terms:

1) phraseological unit

3) series of homogeneous members

5) metaphor

6) antonyms

7) syntactic parallelism

8) expressive repetition

9) exclamatory sentences

The “Vocabulary” section is also adjacent to the “Phraseology” section. During the exam, you will encounter tasks that require knowledge of this section. What do we call phraseological units? Give examples. (These are stable combinations, they make our speech bright, expressive. For example, circle around your finger, lead by the nose, they are like two peas in a pod).

Indicate the sentence with phraseology.
a) I didn’t keep track of him, lady, but he put the cat in a puddle.
b) The pig sat in a puddle and smiled contentedly.
c) With such preparation, we can’t get into a puddle.
d) Sitting in a puddle is a favorite pastime of pigs.
The correct answer is c. Expression"sit in a puddle" - a phraseological unit with the meaning “disgrace yourself”, a syntactically indivisible phrase that is a predicate in a sentence.
- Now I suggest you solve phraseological riddles.
1. It is swallowed; he is suspended from another; they pull on him, forcing him to speak out.
2. It is interpreted in a mortar or carried in a sieve by those people who are engaged in useless work; They put it in their mouth when they are silent.
3. Not flowers, but withering; not palms, but clapping them; not laundry, but gullible people hanging them out.
4. It is in the head of a frivolous person; It is advised to look for it in the field; words and money are thrown at him.

Lesson summary.

Let's look at the table you filled out at the beginning of the lesson.

I learned... I learned...
I realized that I can...
I like it...
It became new for me...
I purchased...
I wanted...
I was inspired...
So, the Russian is immeasurably rich. There is no such word, phenomenon, concept that could not be expressed in Russian. It is full of synonyms, homonyms, paronyms, and phraseological units. New words appear, disappear or are replaced by other obsolete ones. In this lesson we consolidated our knowledge of vocabulary. We worked on the text. We looked at the types of Unified State Examination tasks in vocabulary and phraseology.
In conclusion, I suggest you decide test tasks, test and evaluate your knowledge
1. Indicate the extra word in a series of synonyms.
1) in vain 2) carefully 3) pointlessly 4) in vain
2. Indicate the word that has a homonym.
1) success 2) sharp 3) drown 4) sit
3. Indicate the sentence with phraseology.
1) Everyone really liked the performance.
2) The audience received the performance enthusiastically.
3) The performance delighted the audience.
4) We were delighted with the performance.
4. What word means “a public sale in which the buyer becomes the one. Who will offer a higher price?
1) competition 2) vacancy 3) auction 4) deal
5. Which of the four words is obsolete?
1) sailboat 2) guard 3) border 4) patrol.
6. Which of the following words means “a word that recently appeared in the language”?
1) archaism 2) phraseology 3) neologism 4) dialectism
7. The meaning of which word is defined incorrectly?
1) addressee - the person sending the letter
2) auction - public sale
3) misinform - provide distorted or false information
4) import - removal of goods from the country for sale
8. In what meaning is the highlighted word used in the sentence?
After making sure that Ivan was alone and listening, the mysterious visitor became bolder and entered the room.
1) not known to others
2) being a secret, hidden
3) significant
4) containing a secret, mysterious
9. What is the lexical meaning of the word delicate?
1) subtle, refined 2) the main one in a relationship
3) important, necessary to handle
4) difficult, requiring a sensitive attitude
10. In which sentence is the highlighted word used figuratively?
1) silver mining is a labor-intensive process
2) in the morning frost covered the grass, the road, the roofs of huts with silver
3) Savelich took out a long knitted wallet full of silver from his pocket.
4) the uniform was embroidered with silver.

There will be a file here: /data/edu/files/c1454336234.doc (Tasks for the review lesson “Vocabulary and Phraseology.”)

The word as the basic unit of language: the main significant unit of language is the word. The totality of all the words of a language constitutes its vocabulary. Words in the language serve to designate specific objects, attributes of objects, actions, attributes of actions, quantities. What a separate, independent word denotes is its lexical meaning, for example, there is the object “bridge” and there is the word bridge denoting this object. The lexical meaning of the word bridge is as follows: “a structure for crossing, crossing a river.”

Lexical and grammatical, direct and figurative meaning of words; single and polysemous words.

• - preposition, conjunction, particles do not have subject- lexical meaning and are not members of the proposal, have grammatical meaning.
• - words denoting objects, signs, actions, quantities appear in direct meaning . Often existing words are used to name other objects, signs, actions, for example: the color of gold is transferred to the color of hair - golden hair, that is, similar in color to gold.
• - when transferring the name of one object (attribute, action) as a name for another object. The word acquires a new lexical meaning, cat. called portable. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object and become a direct meaning, for example: a person’s nose (direct) - the bow of a boat (figurative) - the bow of a boat (direct). The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity of objects in something.
• - words, cat. denote only one object, sign, action, i.e. having only one lexical meaning is called unambiguous(violet is one of the colors of the spectrum).
• - a word that has several lexical meanings is called ambiguous(comb - comb, mountain top, wave top).

The figurative meaning of words as the basis of tropes: metaphors, epithets, comparisons.

Synonyms are words of one part of speech, cat. mean the same thing, but differ from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech (blizzard, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard - falling snow in windy weather).

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meanings (fresh bread - stale, fresh magazine - old, fresh collar - dirty).

Homonyms - words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning (kok, scythe, ambassador) not to be confused with words that have the same spelling and pronunciation (lock-castle, organ-organ; pond-rod , labor-tinder).

Paronyms are words of the same part of speech, close in meaning, but different from each other in the composition of phonemes (letters) in the word (betray-sell, base-basis).

Historical changes in the vocabulary of a language: the word as part of the language is a means of communication between people. With the help of language, people communicate with each other, convey their thoughts, feelings, desires. As a means of communication, language is connected with the life of society, with the people. Along with the development of society, language develops and changes, that is, its small part is the word. The vocabulary of the language changes and is enriched, morphological norms change, new syntactic structures appear, new norms for the pronunciation of words are fixed, and some words disappear from the vocabulary of the language. for example, archaisms and historicisms have gone out of circulation in the modern Russian language. They can be found in fiction as a means of recreating historical pictures of past eras, the speech of people of those ancient eras, as well as tools and household items that no longer even exist in our time. Thus, with the development of humanity, a historical change occurs in the vocabulary of the language.

Archaisms - from the Greek ANCIENT - are outdated synonyms of modern words (forehead, neck, neck). Thus, archaisms name concepts that exist now, but are designated by others in modern words. Archaisms are used first in art. literature for creating convincing pictures of a historical era, for authenticity in conveying the characteristics of characters’ speech, as well as as a means of irony, ridicule, and jokes.

Historicisms are outdated words denoting former, now non-existent concepts: names related to the socio-economic relations of the past, household items, tools (boyar, camisole, plow, arshin). In modern Russian there are no synonyms for historicisms. They are used in various styles, most often in the scientific one, to designate concepts of a certain era (the sable hat of a boyar, the fur caps of clerks, the dark caftans of people).

The main sources of vocabulary replenishment: all changes are directly reflected in the vocabulary of the language. occur in social life, technology, science, production. At the same time, some words are gradually falling out of use (obsolete words - archaisms and historicisms), while others, on the contrary, appear in the language (neologisms, borrowed words). Also, new words are formed from derivatives of native Russian words that have existed for many centuries.

Neologisms - from the Greek NEW - are new words that arise in the language and serve to designate those new concepts, cat. appeared in connection with the development social relations, science, culture, technology (lunar rover, video phone). As the phenomena or objects they denote spread, new words may firmly enter into general use and lose their connotation of novelty (TV, tape recorder). Neologisms can be intentionally created by authors for various stylistic purposes for greater expressiveness.

Origin of words:

original Russian words: by origin, the vocabulary of the Russian language contains original Russian words, that is, which originated in the Russian language. Original Russian words make up the bulk of the vocabulary of the Russian language, for example (rye, cow, snow, wind, city, young, good). Many of them exist in Russian. language for centuries, from many a huge number of derivative words have been formed (forest - forest, forester, forester, wooded, coppice);

Borrowed words: included in the vocabulary of the Russian language and taken from other languages: Slavic and foreign languages. The appearance of foreign words in the Russian language is the result of the diverse connections of the Russian people with various peoples of the West and East. These words enter the language, first of all, along with the penetration of new objects and concepts: (globe, circus from Latin; sandwich, workbench from German; avant-garde, director from French; rally, match from English) Words can be borrowed to indicate that in In our language, it is denoted not by one word, but by a phrase, a descriptive phrase, for example (cross - running over rough terrain; sniper - marksman).

Old Church Slavonicisms are words that entered the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language, the language of the most ancient (10th-11th century) monuments of Slavic writing. It is ancient Bulgarian in origin and became widespread in Ancient Rus' because it was largely understandable to Russian people and its assimilation did not present any great difficulties. From Old Church Slavonic they entered into Russian: sweet, enemy, captivity, ignoramus, I will return; some prefixes and suffixes: pre, through, from, bottom, ushch, yushch, ashch, zn, ynya, tv, chiy, tai; the roots are cool and healthy; Some Old Church Slavonicisms do not have external distinctive phonetic or word-formation features (truth, slander, vice, creator).

Common and uncommon words:

Words known to all people and used by everyone are called commonly used.Words that are not known to all speakers of Russian are called not commonly used(these include dialect and professional words).

Dialectisms are dialect words used in artistic works to convey the peculiarities of speech of residents of a certain area. There are three main groups of dialects in the Russian language: North Russian, South Russian, Central Russian.

Professionalisms are professional words used in artistic works to more accurately describe people and their activities. Professional words used in the speech of people united by some profession or specialty. Selected professional words in connection with increased level culture, education of people become commonly used (radio, screen, aspirin, antibiotic).

Words - terms - are a special group among professional words that call concepts of different sciences, for example: suffix, interjection - in the science of language; hypotenuse, leg - in mathematics; rift, magma - in geography.

PHRASEOLOGY is a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.

Phraseological units of the Russian language:

Idioms are phraseological expressions, a figure of speech, the meaning of which is not determined by the individual meanings of the words included in it (to sharpen lyas).

Phraseological combinations are a stable combination of words used to name individual objects, features, and actions. The phraseological unit as a whole has lexical meaning, for example (to kick the bucket - to mess around). Phraseological combinations are one member of a sentence, have synonyms and antonyms - other phraseological units (at the end of the world - where the raven did not carry bones or lift them to heaven - trample them into the mud).

Proverbs, sayings and idioms- these are some parts of phraseological units and characterize all aspects of human life, his attitude to work (golden hands, feet feed the wolf), attitude towards other people (bosom friend, disservice), personal advantages and disadvantages (does not lose his head, poor little head). They are used in everyday speech, in works of art, in journalism. They give expressiveness to the statement and serve as a means of creating imagery.

Sources of phraseological units are proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, works of literature.

Lexical means of expressive speech: common and dialect words, professional words, proper names and denominations, obsolete words, neologisms - all this makes up the lexical wealth of the Russian language.

Lexical dictionaries of the Russian language - from words and phraseological units, linguists compile special books called dictionaries. Some dictionaries explain objects and phenomena of the surrounding world (encyclopedic), while others explain the lexical meanings of words and indicate the norms for their spelling and pronunciation (linguistic). A linguistic dictionary is a special book, a collection of dictionary entries that describe the basic properties of a word. Dictionary entries in dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order. A dictionary entry in a linguistic dictionary consists of the following parts: headword, grammatical forms, interpretation of the lexical meaning of the word, examples of the use of the word in a sentence, phrase. There are linguistic dictionaries of general groups: “Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language”, “Dictionary of Russian folk dialects” and others. And there are dictionaries of individual lexical groups: “Dictionary of synonyms”, “Dictionary of homonyms”, “Dictionary of antonyms”, “ Winged words", "Phraseological Dictionary", "Dictionary of Russian Names", "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language".

• 1. “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl contains over 200 thousand words, it has been republished several times, it contains over 30 thousand Russian proverbs and sayings, but explanations of the meanings of many words and political terms are now not acceptable.
• 2. In 1935-40, the 4-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published under the editorship of Professor D.N. Ushakov. But we must take into account that the explanations of the meanings of a number of words are already outdated and the spelling of some words does not correspond to the currently established standards.
• 3. The 4-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” 1957-61 prepared by the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences presents the commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian language, as well as part of the widely used vocabulary of the Russian literary language from Pushkin to the present day (84g), knowledge that necessary when reading books by classical writers, journalistic and scientific works of the 19th century. The meaning of the word in this dictionary is revealed through a brief interpretation and is accompanied by a variety of examples. There are also grammatical instructions, stylistic notes are given (regional, colloquial, colloquial, bookish, obsolete), and stress is noted. At foreign word it is indicated from which language it came into the Russian language. If a word is included in phraseological units, then they are cited and explained. Since 1981, a 2-volume revised and expanded edition has been published.
• 4. “Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language” in 17 volumes (1948-65) - the most complete Dictionary, published during the Soviet era. It includes more than 120 thousand words. The vocabulary of the literary language of the 19th and 20th centuries is widely represented here. The text material is rich and varied. An important feature is the presence brief information, indicating the time of fixation of the word in previous dictionaries.
• 5. “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” edited by Barkhudarov, was first published in 1961 and then reprinted. It explains the origin of more than 7 thousand of the most common words in our language.
• 6. “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by Molotkov (first edition 1967) can serve as a reference book on Russian phraseology in which there are more than 4 thousand phraseological units and their interpretation, options are given. The use of phraseological units is illustrated with large text material. In 1979, “School” was released for students phrasebook» Zhukova.
• 7. “Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” by Evgenieva, 1970. The 2-volume dictionary contains more than 4 thousand dictionary entries that provide an explanation of the meaning and features of the use of each of the synonyms. In 1975, the one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” was published as a reference manual.
• 8. In the “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M.R. Lvov. (1980) presents the most common antonyms of the modern Russian literary language.

MORPHEMICS AND WORD FORMATION is a branch of the science of language that studies the structure of words (what parts they consist of) and methods of their formation.

Morpheme as a unit of language, types of morphemes: a word consists of a stem and an ending. The basis includes a prefix, a root, a suffix. Prefix, root, suffix and ending are parts of a word, i.e. morphemes.

In changeable independent words, the BASE and ENDING are distinguished, and in the unchangeable words, only the BASE (about, tomorrow, winter-style, moving, muffler).

BASE is a part of a modified word without an ending (sea-sea-sea). The basis of a word is its lexical meaning.

ENDING is a variable part of a word; the cat forms the form of the word and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences. To highlight the ending, you need to change the word (grass-grass). Unchanged words have no ending. When a word is changed or any of its forms (number, gender, case, person) are formed, the endings change.

The ending expresses different grammatical meanings:

• - for nouns, numerals and personal pronouns - case and number;
• - for adjectives, participles and some pronouns - case, number, gender;
• - verbs in the present and future tenses have person and number, and in the past tense they have gender and number;

The ending of m/b is zero, that is, not expressed by sounds. It is revealed by comparing the forms of the word (horse-horse-horse). In the nominative case, the zero ending means that the nouns are used in the form of the nominative case, singular, man of gender, 2nd declension.

Console- this is a significant part of the word, the cat is located in front of the root and serves to form words. The prefix forms words with a new meaning. The word m/b contains not one, but two or more prefixes (hopeless). The vast majority of prefixes are original Russian (o, from, under, above, pere). Foreign languages ​​(a, anti, archi, inter, counter, ultra, de, dez, dis, re, ex, im). Among the prefixes there are synonymous and antonymous. Prefixes can be multi-valued: sail - means approaching; sew - joining; sit down - incomplete action; seaside - finding something nearby; In many words, prefixes have merged with the root, and as independent parts of the word they no longer stand out (admire, admire, meet, get, start, overcome, answer, visit, vertebra, adore, utter).

Root words are the main significant part of the word, which contains general meaning all cognate words. Words with the same root are called cognates. The word m/b has 1 or 2 roots.

Suffix- this is a significant part of the catch, which is located after the root and usually serves to form words. For example: pilot, lamplighter, academician, Georgian, machinist, Caucasian, writer - names of persons of the same family are formed by profession, occupation, nationality and place of residence; pilot, saleswoman, craftswoman, Ossetian, writer - form feminine names with the same meaning; Suffixes can serve to form word forms: znamya-im pad, znamya-rod case; cheerful - more cheerful - comparative degree; to honor without perfecting the appearance, to honor without perfecting the appearance;

Suffixes of nouns - awn, nie, ene, ak, ok, ach, ec, lets, tel, chik, schik, ist, nits, its;

Participle suffixes - ash, yash, ush, yush, im, eat, om, t, nn, enn, sh, vsh;

Suffixes of gerunds - teach, yushchi, in, lice;

Verb suffixes - e, i, well, yva, iva, ova, eva, va;

Suffixes of pronouns and adverbs are either, either, or;

Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes:

UNStressed VOWELS AT THE ROOT OF A WORD:

• 1. in order not to make a mistake in writing the root word, you need to change the word or choose a word with the same root, in which the word being checked would be stressed (r e ka - r e ki, n O Vinka - n O vyy). It is impossible to check without stress if there is an alternation of sentences that does not depend on stress (ex. O power - control A sew, connect O fall - podk A sing, to O lot - off A bark, l O howl - howl A pour).
• 2. at the root -lag-, -lozh- bezud A is written before G, bezud Zh is written before F (location A go, floor O live).
• 3. at the root -rast-, -ros- bezud A is written before ST, SH except for r O drain, negative A sl; negative A style
• 4. in roots with alternating -e- and -i- ber-bir, mer-mir, der-dir, ter-tir, per-pir, stel-stil they write And, if after the root there is a suffix -a- (prot And army, prot e roar).
• 5. in the root -kas-, -kos- in the unadjusted position they write A, if after the root there is a suffix -a-, they write O, if this suffix is ​​not present (example: A sit down, come up O dream).
• 6. at the root -gor-, -gar- in a hopeless position they write O (sg O howl, og A rock).
• 7. unverifiable clauses in the root of the word should be remembered and checked in the dictionary (t O por).
• 8. If the original word began with I, then Y is written in the same root word with the prefix acc. after the prefix -over- they write I (times s play-off game, over And interesting - after over).

ROOT CONSONANT WORDS:

• 1. in order not to make a mistake in writing the sogl at the root of the word, you need to change the word or choose a word with the same root, in which after the checked sogl there is a gl or V, L, M, N, R (le G ki-lyo G ok, zu b-zu b noy-zu b s, about With ba-pro With it).
• 2. In order not to make a mistake in writing unpronounceable sogl when congruent in the root of a word, you need to choose a test word in which this sogl is pronounced clearly. If in a combination of sogl when the word is changed, sogl is not pronounced, then it is not written (chest T ny - ches T oh, miracle sn oh - miracle With en).
• 3. unverifiable agreements in a word need to be memorized and checked in a dictionary (in To hall).

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS IN PRESETS:

• 1. in a prefix (except for pre- and pre-) in an unstressed position the following sentence is written, the cat is heard in the same prefix under stress. To do this, you need to choose another word where this prefix is ​​stressed ( from grow - from shine, on tear - on away).
• 2. if the prefix denotes accession, approach, proximity or incomplete action, then it is written I - this is the prefix -at. If the prefix is ​​close in meaning to the word VERY or PERE, then it is written E, this is the prefix -pre (pr And glue - joining, etc. e bad - very, very e to rob - re).

There are many words in which -pre and -pri have become part of the root; their meaning outside the word is not determined (adorable, nature).

• 3. in prefixes (except for those ending in Z, S) the following sogl is written, cat is heard in the same prefix before hl or before R, L, M, N. To do this, you need to choose another word with this prefix standing before hl or before R , L, M, N (o b rub - oh b grow, oh b search).
• 4. in the prefix on -з, -с before the voiced sogl they write Z, and before the voiceless sogl they write S (be h delicious, blah With oven).

VOWELS AFTER SISSINGS AND -Ts:

• 1. if at the root after a hissing sound is heard under the stress O, then you need to write E (exceptions: gooseberry, rustle, seam, hood, ramrod, slum, prim, saddler, blinders); (black, burn hand - noun, burn hand - verb).
• 2. after C under the stress in the root they write O. Bezud ch after C must be checked with stress (c O kol, ts e face-ts e ly).
• 3. after sibilants and C under stress in the suffixes of nouns, adjectives and adverbs, in the endings of nouns and adverbs it is written O, without emphasis E (shapch O nka, bowls e chka; kumach O vyy, beige e vyy; reed O m, brocade O th, leather e th; fresh O, viscous e).
• 4. after hissing under stress at the endings of verbs, O is heard, and E is written (sech e t, take care e T).
• 5. in suffixes passive participles under stress it is written Yo, without stress E (if they are formed from verbs ending in -it-) (resh e nny - decide it, coloring e new - color it).
• 6. after the hissing Zh, Ch, Sh, Shch, Y, Yu, Z are not written, but I, U, A are written (with the exception of a brochure, jury, parachutist).

VOWELS -И, -И AFTER -Ц IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORD:

• 1. And after T it is written in the root of the word and in words starting with -tsia- (exception - tsyts, gypsy, chick, tskat, on tiptoe).
• 2. in the suffixes of adjectives and in the endings there is a nominative case, plural and gender case, the singular field C is written Y (cucumbers, Sinitsyn).

VOWELS IN SUFFIXES OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, PARTICIPLES:

• 1. to correctly write gl in the suffix -ek, -ik, you need to inflect these nouns. If the ch falls out, then we write E, if it doesn’t fall out, then we write I (drop e to-zamo chk ah, finger And k-finger And ka).
• 2. if a participle or adjective is formed from a verb ending in -at, -yat, then A or Z is written before 1 or 2 N; if not ending in -at, -yat, then write E (added A hung, hung A n - uvesh at, roll up e naughty, fucked up e n - roller it).
• 3. if in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivayu, then in the suffix -yva, -iva in an indefinite form, in the past tense in participles and gerunds we write Y, I (story I feel-story s wow, story s shaft, story s vaya).

If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yu, -yu, then in the suffix -ova, -eva in an indefinite form, in the past tense in participles and gerunds we write O, E (conversations wow- conversations O talk, talk O shaft, conversation O vavshiy).

• 4. in the suffixes of the active participles of the present tense - ush, - yush, -ash, -yash we write:
  • a) the letters U, Yu, if the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation (kolol-kol Yu strong, stronger, stronger at shchiy);
  • b) letters A, Z, if the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations (paint - red I shchiy).
• 5. in the suffixes of the passive participles of the present tense -em, -im we write:
  • a) the letter E, if the participle is formed from the verb 1 conjugation (burn-burn e washed);
  • b) the letter I, if the participle is formed from a verb of 2 conjugations (see-see And washed).
• 6. in the suffix -en of nouns ending in -mya they write E (on znam e neither - banner).
• 7. in adverbs with the prefix -iz, -do, -s, write A at the end, if the adverbs are formed from add to cat there are no these prefixes. In other adverbs with these prefixes at the end they write O (dry A- from dry without prefix, ahead of schedule O- from early with prefix).

CONSONANTS IN SUFFIXES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES:

• 1. in the suffix of nouns -schik, -chik, after D-T, Z-S, Zh is written Ch, in other cases Shch (bound tch IR - binding T ah, gro zch ik - gru h it, kame nsch ik - not after D-T, Z-S, F).
• 2. the suffix K is written in adjectives:
  • a) having a short form (colo To);
  • b) formed from some nouns with a base in K, Ch, C (German ts- mute tsk oh, yeah h-tka tsk ii);
  • c) others are attached, we write SK (matro With-sailor sk th - not on K, Ch, C).

VOWELS E and I IN ENDINGS:

1. E in the ending of a noun of the 1st declension in the dative and prepositional cases and of nouns of the 2nd declension in the prepositional case (located at the edge);

And, И in endings - it is written:

• a) for nouns of the 1st declension in the birth case (located at the edge And);
• b) for nouns of the 3rd declension (to walk through the wasteland And);
• c) for nouns in -iy, -ie, -iya, -mya in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases (attach to the stirrups And- on -me).

The letter I is written at the endings of numerals from 11 to 19.

• 2. at the endings of adjectives, ordinal numbers and participles of the masculine and neuter gender in the singular case it is written Y, I (winter And m in the evening, after four s m house), and in the prepositional letter the letter O, E (in winter e m forest, in large O m forest).
• 3. in unstressed personal endings of verbs, you must take the indefinite form. If the verb is of the 1st conjugation (not in -it and is not included in the 11th excl.), then at the end they write E (number e t - prick not on -it, not excluding, 1st conjugation; steles e t - lay excluding, 1st conjugation), if the verb is of the 2nd conjugation (na -it, except shave, lay and 11 excluding), then at the end they write I (kras And t - paint the 2nd conjugation). EXCEPTIONS: drive, hold, hear, breathe; endure, twist, depend, offend, hate, see, look.
• 4. in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases of cardinal numbers from 11 to 19, the ending is written I (to twelve And hours).

Historical changes in the structure of words: some orthoepic (pronunciation) norms are changing less actively, but still noticeably. So, for example, in the 19th century, some words were pronounced with a different emphasis than now: muzy"ka, paspo"rt, a"english, etc. in the time of Pushkin, these accents were the norm. Before our eyes, the place of stress in the plural forms of short forms is changing adjectives: true, simple, close,” although some normative manuals still consider the first syllable to be stressed. Some morphological norms are also gradually changing: the noun COFFEE these days has 2 gender variants - my coffee and my coffee; in combinations, zero endings win - a kilogram of orange(s), a hundred gram(s) of bread.

Etymology as a branch of linguistics: linguistics studies a separate lexical group, the origin of words and describes in special dictionaries called etymological. A dictionary entry in an etymological dictionary provides information about the original Russian or borrowed origin of a word and the method of formation of this word, for example:

QUINOA. Common Slavic. Educated like a dialect loboda, using suf. - food from the same base (leb- swan, cognate with Latin albus - "white". The plant is named for the white color of the leaves (from the inside). Wed. similar lit. balanda - “quinoa”, correlative with baltas - “white”. The main ways of forming words in the Russian language: new words in the Russian language are formed on the basis of words, phrases, and less often - sentences, which are the initial word for a new word. The main ways of forming words are prefix, suffix, prefix-suffix, suffixless, addition, transition from one part of speech to another.

Prefix method: a prefix is ​​added to the original, ready-made word. Moreover, the new word refers to the same part of speech as the original word (grandmother - great-grandmother, cheerful - very cheerful, some - some, none, read - finish reading, everywhere - everywhere).

Suffix method: a suffix is ​​added to the base of the original word, so words of all independent parts of speech are formed. Words formed by suffixation are another part of speech. This method is the main one for forming nouns, adjectives and adverbs. The suffix is ​​added not to the whole word, but to its base, and the base is sometimes modified: part of the base is cut off (to prepare - preparation), its sound composition changes, sounds alternate (grandson - grandson).

Prepositional-suffixal method consists in simultaneously attaching a prefix and a suffix to the base of the original word (parasite, candlestick, off-road, gift, get sick, in a businesslike way, in a maternal way, in the old way).

Suffixless method: the ending is discarded from the word (green - green), or the ending is discarded and the suffix is ​​cut off at the same time (fly off - fly away, repeat - repeat).

Addition method consists of combining two words in one word (mower + hay = haymower), resulting in the formation of COMPOUND WORDS that contain 2 or more roots. They are formed from independent parts of speech, retaining the whole word or part of it. In a compound word m/d with roots m/b the connecting vowels O, E (atom O move, pool e meth).

Difficult words are formed:

• 1) adding whole words: sofa bed, pay phone, hero city, boarding school.
• 2) adding words without connecting vowels: party card, wall newspaper, drama club, camping trip; and with connecting vowels O, E, I: linguist, oil pipeline, digger, five-year-old.
• 3) with the help of connecting vowels O, E, connecting part of the stem of the word with the whole word: new building, reinforced concrete, frost-resistant, vegetable storage, housing and household, arts and crafts.
• 4) adding the stems with the simultaneous addition of a suffix: agriculture, dizzy.
• 5) by merging words: evergreen, instant, long-lasting, highly revered, tumbleweed.

Addition of abbreviated stems of the original words: higher educational institution - university.

Compound words are formed:

• 1) by adding syllables or parts of words of the full name: Komsomol - communist youth union, collective farm - collective farm, special correspondent - special correspondent, battalion commander - battalion commander, regional committee - regional committee).
• 2) adding the names of the initial letters: MSU - Moscow State University, CPSU, VDNKh.
• 3) adding the initial sounds: Moscow Art Theater, TASS - telegraph agency of the Soviet Union.
• 4) in a mixed way - adding a syllable with a sound, a sound with a syllable, letters with a sound, etc.: glavk - main committee, district - district department of public education, CDSA - central House of the Soviet Army.

Complex and complexly abbreviated words can serve to form new words: Komsomol - Komsomolets, Komsomol woman, in Komsomol.

The method of transitioning words from one part of speech to another, while being used as another part of speech, they acquire a different general meaning and lose a number of their grammatical features. For example: private fighter (adjective) - appeared private from the adjacent part (exists); first year of the five-year plan (counts) - Chernov- first student (adjective).

Word-formation means of expressive speech: these are the above-listed main ways of forming words (cheerful - cheerful, grandson - grandson).

Morphemic and derivational dictionaries: look a little higher in the “explanatory dictionaries”.

Vocabulary (from the Greek lexikos - verbal, vocabulary) is the totality of words of a language, its vocabulary. The branch of language science that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. The subject of the study of lexicology is the following aspects:

• 1. The problem of the word as the basic unit of language and lexicology.
• 2. The structure of the verbal composition of the language.
• 3. Ways to replenish and develop vocabulary.

The main function of a word is nominative or nominative. The word is used to name objects, persons, processes, properties, states, characteristics, quantities, etc. Each word has its own sound, letter shell, individual lexical (meaning of the word) and typical grammatical (signs of the word as a part of speech) meaning, for example: [t "ul"] - tulle; individual lexical meaning is “thin mesh fabric”; the word tulle is a masculine noun, 2nd declension, singular, in the nominative case. The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of a sound complex fixed in the minds of speakers with a particular phenomenon of reality.

A word is a two-way concept. The outer side is the sound shell, and the inner side is the semantics (meaning). Without the external side, the word cannot be perceived, and without the internal side it cannot be understood. In addition to the lexical meaning, a word can contain an emotional, expressive assessment and stylistic coloring. The word is the main element of language, since words are made up of combinations, and combinations are made up of sentences. A person actively speaks approximately 20,000 words.

A word can have one lexical meaning, such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialogue, purple, saber, on guard. A word can have two or more lexical meanings, such words are called polysemantic, For example: the word root is polysemantic; in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated: 1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inside of a tooth, hair, nail. Turn red to the roots of your hair. 3. transfer The beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. The root is the significant part of the word.

There are several ways to explain the lexical meaning of words:

• 1. Interpretation (explanation) of the word in the dictionary entries of explanatory dictionaries.
• 2. Selection of synonyms: joy - fun, revival, holiday, celebration, jubilation.
• 3. Interpretation, which includes words of the same root: a teacher is one who transmits knowledge, an ant is one who lives in the grass-ant, a shepherd is one who grazes.
• 4. Illustration of the meaning of the word, drawing.

Lexical and phraseological units of the Russian language. Lexico-phraseological norm, its variants

The main lexical units are synonyms, antonyms, homonyms.

Homonyms - words that are the same in sound (spelling), but different in meaning.Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning and differ in shades of meaning. Synonyms are identified:

• - absolute ( hippopotamus - hippopotamus);
• - ideographic (inaccurate) (hot - sultry);
• - stylistic ( face - face - mug);
• - contextual ones come closer in meaning in a particular case.

A synonymous series is synonyms united by a common meaning and arranged in a certain order. The general meaning of a number of synonyms is most clearly expressed by the core word, or dominant. The dominant begins a synonymous series and is usually a stylistically neutral word. For example: dwelling - dwelling, den, lair; good - excellent - wonderful - excellent - magnificent.

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings.

In different meanings, words can have different antonyms ( a low fence is high, a low deed is noble). In works of art and journalism there are words that only in a certain context acquire the opposite meaning and therefore become antonyms. For example, the word sheep does not have an antonym in its literal meaning. But in the proverb “Do not consider your enemy a sheep, consider a wolf” this word becomes an antonym of the word wolf.

Paronyms are words with the same root, similar in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning: subscription - subscriber, great - majestic, hostile - enemy, homely - homely - brownie, etc.)

Synonymy and antonymy are observed among unambiguous words and among polysemous ones; one and the same polysemantic word can be included in several synonymous series and antonymic pairs.

Phraseologisms (phraseological units) are stable phrases: (at least a dime a dozen, the darkness of darkness, woe to grieve, etc.)

In a phraseological unit, the lexical meaning does not have each word individually, but the entire phrase as a whole. Therefore, in a sentence it is one member of the sentence.

Based on their stylistic coloring, the following phraseological units are distinguished: 1. neutral - used in all styles of speech: a vicious circle, a just cause, live out your life, with a sinking heart, know your worth, a play of imagination, come to consciousness. 2. Book - used in book styles, mainly in written speech: probe the waters, follow in the footsteps, tempt fate, disappear from the face of the earth, Egyptian execution, stumbling block, Augean stables. 3. Conversational - used primarily in oral communication: to live happily, behind seven locks, the eye rejoices, as if on pins and needles, through teeth, the first pancake is lumpy, seven Fridays a week. 4. Colloquial - differ from colloquial ones by being lower and rude: on Kudykin's mountain, make a mistake, fool your head, it's a trifle, get to the point, kill a worm, shed a tear.)

Lexico-phraseological norm is the norm of using words and phraseological units in their inherent lexical meaning and the norm of combining words and phraseological units with other words in a sentence.

Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.

Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.

Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.

Visual and expressive capabilities of vocabulary and phraseology

The main conditions on which the expressiveness of a person’s speech depends are independence of thinking; indifference, interest of the author of the speech in what he speaks or writes about, and in those for whom he speaks or writes; good knowledge of the language and its expressive capabilities.

Most often, in artistic and journalistic works, in public speeches, congratulatory texts and speeches, the word is used as a means of expressiveness.

Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, based on figurative use words. Antithesis, oxymoron are being built V in most cases in opposition, collision antonyms. There are a variety of techniques for playing out in speech, especially artistic, journalistic, synonyms, homonyms. Means of expression are often archaisms, neologisms.

Metaphor-- transfer of name by similarity.

Golden cage

Hanging on a branch

There's a bird in this cage

It's like the heat is burning.

(Ya. Surikov)

There's already a golden leaf covering

Wet soil in the forest.

I boldly trample my foot

The beauty of the spring forest.

(A. Maikov)

In the first example the adjective golden has a direct meaning - “made of gold” and does not have expressiveness, but in combination the leaf gold the definition used in the figurative meaning of “the color of gold” creates a colorful image.

Metonymy Unlike metaphor, it is based on the transfer of names by contiguity: objects and phenomena that receive the same name must be adjacent and somehow relate to each other.

Synecdoche is a special technique when the name of a part becomes the name of the whole. So, from V. Mayakovsky we read: “The foundry was flooded with blouses and caps,” “And in the doors - pea coats, overcoats, sheepskin coats...”

The most common figure based on antonyms is antithesis. It is based on a comparison of two opposing phenomena or signs. For example:

Memory has this property:

After the harshest adversity

Bad things are quickly forgotten -

And good things last a long time.

(K. Vanshenkin)

Antonyms bad--good, forgotten--lives and form an antithesis.

Oxymoron is a combination of words expressing opposite, logically incompatible concepts, for example: magnificent withering, sweet sorrow, sonorous silence, young old age.

In addition to antonyms, they have expressiveness and synonyms. The Russian language is rich in synonyms. For example, verbs spend, squander, spend, squander, expend, live, let down, squander, swell, squander, squander, squander means “to give for something” available money or any valuables at all.”

Of particular interest as a means of imagery and expressiveness are neologisms.

In most cases, neologisms name new phenomena, objects, actions, states, quality ( merchandiser, broker, homeless person).

Lexical errors and their correction. Errors in the use of phraseological units and their correction. Aphorisms

Lexical errors are violations of lexical norms. Traditionally, this includes the use of words in non-standard meanings from the point of view of the language system, violations of lexical compatibility, repetitions and tautology.

Lexical errors)

	Type of error
	Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it	We were shocked wonderful acting. The fire is getting bigger and bigger got excited, was burning.
	Incorrect use of paronyms	A person leads a festive life. I'm in a lazy mood today
	Failure to distinguish synonymous words
	The use of words of a different stylistic coloring
	Pleonasm is the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically redundant.	All guests received memorable souvenirs Young young man, Very beautiful
	Tautology - repetition of words with the same root or identical morphemes	Business leaders are business-minded. In that the story is told about real events
	Violation of lexical compatibility
	Using unnecessary words
	Lexical incompleteness of the utterance.	Not allowed on pages printing and television statements capable of inciting ethnic hatred
		You know, so to speak, in fact, in general, to be honest, etc.
	Poorly formed neologisms	On dimpled 23 thousand rubles were spent on repairs.

Errors in the use of phraseological units

• · a) grammatical modification of a phraseological unit: He always sits with his hands folded.
• · b) lexical modification of a phraseological unit. It's time for you to take control of your mind Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
• · c) change in the lexical compatibility of phraseological units: They have a big role.

Aphorisms

An aphorism is a deep generalizing thought, clothed in a laconic, refined linguistic form; proverb of literary origin: "Books are children of the mind"

(J. Swift).

The concept of aphorism has not yet received a precise definition: some researchers classify only author's sayings as aphorisms, including popular words in this category, others - all types of short generalized statements, including proverbs and sayings.

Word– the basic unit of language. One of the most important functions of a word is nominative. The correlation of a word with the idea of ​​something determines its lexical meaning, that is, the meaning of the main part of the word that expresses its content. In Russian, words can have one meaning (such words are called unambiguous), for example: cornflower - a herbaceous plant with blue flowers; Derby is the name of a horse competition for three- or four-year-old horses.

In the process of its historical development, in addition to the original, direct meaning, the word acquires a new, secondary meaning. The presence of several (two or more) meanings for a word is called polysemy.

For example, the word house has the following meanings:

1. Building, structure.
2. Living space, apartment.
3. Family, people living together.
4. Dynasty, reigning family.
5. Government agency.
6. Establishment, enterprise.

In this case, the word is associated with different concepts depending on the context. As a rule, the more common a word is, the more meaning it acquires. A new meaning of a word can arise by transferring the name according to similarity: nose (of a person) - nose (of a ship). Sometimes a new meaning appears as a result of the similarity of the functions performed: feather (quill) - feather (steel). The consequences of a careless attitude to polysemantic words are ambiguity and ambiguity of expression, as well as excessive expansion of the meanings of known words. It is important to know well the lexical meaning of each word, as well as to observe the norms of lexical compatibility.

Phraseology(Greek φράσις - expression, figure of speech, λόγος - word, concept, doctrine) - a section of linguistics (the science of language), in which stable combinations of words are studied, used to name individual objects, signs, actions, for example: to beat the heels, to hit in trouble, fighting like a fish on ice, Augean stables, specific gravity. Such figures of speech are called phraseological figures (phraseologisms), non-free, or connected, phrases. Unlike free phrases (an interesting book, studying in a gymnasium, writing in a notebook), which are formed in the process of forming and expressing thoughts, phraseological units (phraseologisms) are reproduced as ready-made, pre-given units of speech. By naming objects, denoting concepts and ideas about the phenomena of reality, phraseological units acquire a certain lexical meaning, which can be interpreted in the same way as the lexical meaning of any full-meaning word: like clockwork - without interference, without difficulty, very easily; right off the bat - immediately, without delay; throw thunder and lightning - speak angry, irritated, denouncing or threatening.

Phraseologisms are divided into three groups depending on how holistic, understandable, and explainable their meaning seems to be:

• phraseological adhesions (stable phrases indivisible in meaning, the integral meaning of which does not follow from the meanings of individual components): get into trouble, scapegoat, eat a dog;
• phraseological units (figurative, metaphorical expressions, many of which can be taken literally): cast a fishing rod, pull the strap, do the weather like clockwork, give a hand (phraseological units allow the insertion of the word: go into your shell, pull the official strap);
• phraseological combinations (stable phrases in which there are words both with a free meaning and with a phraseologically related one): fragile boat, pitch hell (only hell and darkness can be pitch), brown eyes (only eyes can be brown), pecked bread ( Only bread can be pecked).

As we see, phraseological units are characterized by their own meaning, which does not always depend on the meanings of their constituent components. A phraseological phrase consists of the same words, located one after another in a strictly established order. At the same time, in some cases, a different arrangement of components is noted (burn out of shame - burn out of shame, pull the bagpipes - pull the bagpipes). In such phraseological units, the location of the words forming them is fixed in two equally possible variant forms.

Phraseologisms are distinguished by their impenetrable structure. The bulk of phraseological units appear in the form of integral linguistic units, insertions into which are usually impossible (from young to old, in the prime of life, in seventh heaven, it’s all in the bag). Some phraseological units have components separated by distance:
You literally can't see anything.
What kind of scolding did dad give him today!

Phraseologisms must have the entire set of specified features that distinguish them from free combinations and words.

In the sentence, the phraseological turn is one member: The mother reluctantly let her son go to the mountains. In this sentence, the phraseological unit reluctantly is a circumstance of the course of action.

Phraseology often also includes proverbs, sayings, sayings and aphorisms (they are called phraseological expressions), which in their structure are not phrases, but sentences, for example: A healthy mind in a healthy body; Man – it sounds proud; Live and learn; Every day is not Sunday; I picked up the tug - don’t say it’s not strong; Truth is good, but happiness is better; And nothing has changed!

Phraseological phrases can be used as synonyms for individual words: headlong - quickly, at the edge of the world - far, like looking into water - to foresee. Phraseologisms are mostly unambiguous. For example, the phraseological phrase spruce head is used only in the meaning of “stupid, stupid person”: “Where have you been, spruce head?” – Grisha was indignant. (F.V. Gladkov)

Sometimes phraseological units can be multi-valued, that is, have not one, but two or more meanings, for example: put on your feet (educate, raise and cure, bring back to life); wag the tail (resorting to cunning, tricks, evading something and ingratiating oneself, treating someone servilely).

Phraseologisms, depending on their origin, are divided into primordially Russian (turns of everyday speech: in full Ivanovo, with Gulkin’s nose; proverbs, sayings: there is no truth in your feet, put on the back burner; stable combinations from Russian folklore: open field, beautiful maiden; expressions of professional speech: no and no trial, pulling the strap) and borrowed from other languages, among which two groups can be distinguished:

1. phraseological units of Old Church Slavonic origin (manna from heaven; daily bread; stumbling block),
2. phraseological units borrowed from European languages:

• ​literal translation of foreign language proverbs and sayings (there is no arguing about tastes, from a bird’s eye view);
• phraseological units used without translation (notabene, after the fact);
• expressions from literary works, sayings, aphorisms (dot the i’s, the golden mean).

Lexicology (from the Greek Lexikos - related to the word), a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, its vocabulary. The subject of the study of vocabulary is the following aspects of the vocabulary of a language: the problem of the word as the basic unit of a language, types of lexical units, the structure of the vocabulary of a language, the functioning of lexical units, ways of replenishment and development of vocabulary, vocabulary and extra-linguistic reality. The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous. It distinguishes categories of lexical units on different grounds: by sphere of use - commonly used and stylistically marked vocabulary, used in certain conditions and spheres of communication (poetic, colloquial, vernacular, dialectisms), by historical perspective (neologisms, archaisms); by origin (borrowings), active and passive vocabulary. An important aspect of vocabulary is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings, that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is most directly fixed. In this regard, issues such as vocabulary and culture are considered.

A lexeme is a significant word; it points to objects and denotes concepts about them; it is capable of acting as a member of a sentence and forming sentences.

1. Phraseology as a linguistic discipline

Phraseology is a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units of a particular language is also called its phraseology.

The most important property of phraseological units is their reproducibility. They are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they are fixed in the language. Phraseologisms are always complex in composition and are formed by combining several components. The components of a phraseological unit are not used independently and do not change their usual meaning in phraseology (blood with milk - healthy, ruddy). Phraseologisms are characterized by constancy of meaning. In free phrases, one word can be replaced by another if it makes sense. Phraseologisms do not allow such a replacement (the cat cried - you cannot “say the cat cried”). But there are phraseological units that have options: spread your mind - spread your brain. However, the existence of variants of phraseological units does not mean that words can be replaced in them.

Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. 4 types of phraseological units: f raseological unity- a phraseological turn with a metaphorical figurative meaning, having a homonym - a free combination of words (soap your head - scold and lather your head with soap). Phraseological combination– a phraseological turn of phrase characterized by reproducibility and holistic meaning arising from the meanings of its constituent words (question mark, win). Phraseological fusion– idiom is a phraseological phrase, the meaning of which is figurative, holistic and does not depend on the meanings of the words included in it, often outdated (get into trouble, eat the dog). Phraseological expressions or established phrases– proposals with a rethought composition (don’t have 100 rubles, but have 100 friends).